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PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


PEDAGOGICAL 
ANTHROPOLOGY 


BY 


MARIA  MONTESSORI 

AUTHOR    OP   "THE    MONTESSORI    METHOD" 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  ITALIAN  BY 

FREDERIC  TABER  COOPER 


WITH  163  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  DIAGRAMS 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK   A.   STOKES   COMPANY 
MCMXIII 


72519 


Copyright,  1913,  by 
FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 


Att  rights  reserved,  including  that  of  translation  into  foreign 
languages,  including  the  Scandinavian 


July,  1913 


THE. MAPLE. PRESS • YORK' PA 


Education 
Library 


LB 
1125 

M76E 


TO 

MY   MOTHER 

RENILDE  STOPPANI 

AND   MY  FATHER 

ALE88ANDRO  MONTESSORI 

ON  THE   OCCASION  OF  THE   FORTY -FIFTH   ANNIVERSARY 

OF  THEIR  UNCLOUDED   UNION,  I   DEDICATE  THIS 

BOOK,  FRUIT  OF  THE  SPIRIT  OF  LOVE  AND 

CONTENTMENT  WITH  WHICH  THEY 

HAVE    INSPIRED   ME 


* 
J| 

W 


PREFACE 

FOR  some  time  past  much  has  been  said  in  Italy  regarding 
Pedagogical  Anthropology;  but  I  do  not  think  that  until  now  any 
attempt  has  been  made  to  define  a  science  corresponding  to  such 
a  title;  that  is  to  say,  a  method  that  systematises  the  positive 
study  of  the  pupil  for  pedagogic  purposes  and  with  a  view  to 
establishing  philosophic  principles  of  education. 

As  soon  as  anthropology  annexes  the  adjective,  "  pedagogical," 
it  should  base  its  scope  upon  the  fundamental  conception  of  a 
possible  amelioration  of  man,  founded  upon  the  positive  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  human  life.  In  contrast  to  general  anthro- 
pology  which,  starting  from  a  basis  of  positive  data  founded  on 
observation,  mounts  toward  philosophic  problems  regarding  the 
origin  of  man,  pedagogic  anthropology,  starting  from  an  analogous 
basis  of  observation  and  research,  must  rise  to  philosophic  con- 
ceptions regarding  the  future  destiny  of  man  from  the  biological 
point  of  view.  The  study  of  congenital  anomalies  and  of  their 
biological  and  social  origin,  must  undoubtedly  form  a  part  of 
pedagogical  anthropology,  in  order  to  afford  a  positive  basis  for  a 
universal  human  hygiene,  whose  sole  field  of  action  must  be  the 
school;  but  an  even  greater  importance  is  assumed  by  the  study 
of  defects  of  growth  in  the  normal  man;  because  the  battle  against 
these  evidently  constitutes  the  practical  avenue  for  a  wide  regen- 
eration  of  mankind. 

If  in  the  future  a  scientific  pedagogy  is  destined  to  rise,  it  will 
devote  itself  to  the  education  of  men  already  rendered  physically 
better  through  the  agency  of  the  allied  positive  sciences,  among 
which  pedagogic  anthropology  holds  first  place. 

The  present-day  importance  assumed  by  all  the  sciences  cal- 
culated to  regenerate  education  and  its  environment,  the  school, 
has  profound  social  roots  and  is  forced  upon  us  as  the  necessary 
path  toward  further  progress;  in  fact  the  transformation  of  the 
outer  environment  through  the  mighty  development  of  experimen- 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

tal  sciences  during  the  past  century,  must  result  in  a  correspond- 
ingly transformed  man;  or  else  civilisation  must  come  to  a  halt 
before  the  obstacle  offered  by  a  human  race  lacking  in  organic 
strength  and  character. 

The  present  volume  comprises  the  lectures  given  by  me  in  the 
University  of  Rome,  during  a  period  of  four  years,  all  of  which  were 
diligently  preserved  by  one  of  my  students,  Signor  Franceschetti. 
My  thanks  are  due  to  my  master,  Professor  Giuseppe  Sergi  who, 
after  having  urged  me  to  turn  my  anthropological  studies  in  the 
direction  of  the  school,  recommended  me  as  a  specialist  in  the 
subject;  and  my  free  university  course  for  students  in  the  Faculty 
of  Natural  Sciences  and  Medicine  was  established,  in  pursuance  of 
his  advice,  by  the  Pedagogic  School  of  the  University  of  Rome. 
The  volume  also  contains  the  pictures  used  in  the  form  of  lantern 
slides  to  illustrate  the  lectures,  pictures  taken  in  part  from  various 
works  of  research  mentioned  in  this  volume.  Acknowledgment  is 
gratefully  made  to  the  scientists  and  scholars  whose  work  is  thus 
referred  to. 

I  have  divided  my  subject  into  ten  chapters,  according  to  a 
special  system:  namely,  that  each  chapter  is  complete  in  itself— 
for  example,  the  first  chapter,  which  is  very  long,  contains  an  out- 
line of  general  biology,  and  at  the  same  time  biological  and  social 
generalisations  concerning  man  considered  from  our  point  of  view 
as  educators,  and  thus  furnishes  a  complete  organic  conception 
which  the  remainder  of  the  book  proceeds  to  analyse,  one  part 
at  a  time;  the  chapter  on  the  pelvis,  on  the  other  hand,  is  exceed- 
ingly short,  but  it  completely  covers  the  principles  relating  to  this 
particular  part,  because  they  lend  themselves  to  such  condensed 
treatment. 

Far  from  assuming  that  I  have  written  a  definitive  work,  it  is 
only  at  the  request  of  my  students  and  publisher  that  I  have  con- 
sented to  the  publication  of  these  lectures,  which  represent  a 
modest  effort  to  justify  the  faith  of  the  master  who  urged  me  to 
devote  my  services  as  a  teacher  to  the  advancement  of  the  school. 

MARIA  MONTESSORI. 


( The  figures  in  parenthesis  refer  to  (he  number  of  the  page) 

INTRODUCTION 

MODERN  TENDENCIES  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY  AND  THEIR 
RELATION   TO  PEDAGOGY 

The  Old  Anthropology (1) — Modern  Anthropology (4) — De  Giovanni  and  Physiologi- 
cal Anthropology (11) — Sergi  and  Pedagogic  Anthropology(14) — Morselli  and 
Scientific  Philosophy  (21) — Importance  of  Method  in  Experimental  Sciences (23) 
— Objective  Collecting  of  Single  Facts (24) — Passage  from  Analysis  to  Synthesis 
(26) — Method  to  be  followed  in  the  present  Course  of  Lectures(SO) — Limits  of 
Pedagogical  Anthropology(34).  The  School  as  a  Field  of  Research(37). 

CHAPTER  I 
CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY 

The  Material  Substratum  of  Life(38) — Synthetic  Concept  of  the  Individual  in 
Biology (38) — Formation  of  Multicellular  Organisms(42) — Theories  of  Evolu- 
tion(46) — Phenomena  of  Heredity(SO) — Phenomena  of  Hybridism (51) — Men- 
del's Laws  (51). 

THE  FORM  AND  TYPES  OF  STATURE 

The  Form  (67) — Fundamental  Canons  regarding  the  Form  (74) — Types  of  Stature, 
Macroscelia  and  Brachyscelia;  their  Physiological  Significance(75) — Types  of 
Stature  in  relation  to  Race(77),  Sex(80),  and  Age(81) — Pedagogic  Considera- 
tions^)— Abnormal  Types  of  Stature  in  their  relation  to  Moral  Training(91) — 
Macroscelia  and  Brachyscelia  in  Pathological  Individuals  (De  Giovanni's  Hypo- 
Bthenic  and  Hypersthenic  Types)  (95) — Types  of  Stature  in  Emotional  Criminals 
and  in  Parasites (101) — Extreme  types  of  Stature  among  the  Extra-social:  Nan- 
ism and  Gigantism(103) — Summary  of  Types  of  Stature(lOS). 

THE  STATURE 

The  Stature  as  a  Linear  Index(106) — Limits  of  Stature  according  to  Race(108) — Stat- 
ure in  relation  to  Sex(lll) — Variations  in  Stature  with  Age,  according  to  Sex(118) 
— Variations  due  to  Mechanical  Causes(119) — Variations  due  to  Adaptation  in 
connection  with  various  Causes,  Social,  Physical,  Psychic,  Pathological,  etc. (124) 
— Effect  of  Light,  Heat,  Electricity(132) — Variations  in  Growth  according  to  the 
Season(138) — Pathogenesis  of  Infantilism(151) — Stature  affected  by  Syphilis 
(157),  Tuberculosis (158),  Malaria(160),  Pellagra(161),  Rickets(164)— Moral  and 
Pedagogical  Considerations(168) — Summary  of  Stature(170). 

THE  WEIGHT 

The  Weight  considered  as  Total  Measure  of  Mass(172) — Weight  of  Child  at  Birth 
(173)— Loss  of  Weight(176)— Specific  Gravity  of  Body (178)— Index  of 
Weight(lSl). 

ix 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  II 
CRANIOLOGY 

The  Head  and  Cranium(187) — The  Face(188) — Characteristics  of  the  Human  Cra- 
nium (191) — Evolution  of  the  Forehead;  Inferior  Skull  Caps;  the  Pithecanthro- 
pus; the  Neanderthal  Man(192) — Morphological  Evolution  of  the  Cranium 
through  different  Periods  of  Life(197) — Normal  Forms  of  Cranium (202) — the 
Cephalic  Index (207) — Volume  of  Cranium  (220) — Development  of  Brain (220) — 
Extreme  Variations  in  Volume  of  Brain(229) — Nomenclature  of  Cranial  Capac- 
ity(242) — Chemistry  of  the  Brain(247) — Human  Intelligence(252) — Influence  of 
Mental  Exercise(254) — Pretended  Cerebral  Inferiority  of  Woman(256) — Limits 
of  the  Face(259)— Human  Character  of  the  Face(260)— Normal  Visage(262)— 
Prognathism(268)— Evolution  of  the  Face(272)— Facial  Expression(276)— the 
Neck(282). 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  THORAX 

Anatomical  Parts  of  the  Thorax(281) — Physiological  and  Hygienic  Aspect  of  Thorax 
(286)— Spirometry  (288)— Growth  of  Thorax  (294)— Dimensions  of  Thorax  in 
relation  to  Stature(295)— Thoracic  Index (297)— Shape  of  Thorax (299)— Anoma- 
lies of  Shape(SOl) — Pedagogical  Considerations:  the  Evil  of  School  Benches(302). 

CHAPTER  IV 
THE  PELVIS 

Anatomical  Parts  of  the  Pelvis(304) — Growth  of  Pelvis(306) — Shape  of  Pelvis  in 
relation  to  Child-birth  (307). 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  LIMBS 

Anatomy  of  the  Limbs(308) — Growth  of  Limbs(309) — Malformations:  Flat-foot, 
Opposable  Big  Toe(311),  Curvature  of  Leg,  Club-foot (3 12)— The  Hand(312)— 
Cheiromancy  and  Physiognomy;  the  Hand  in  Figurative  Speech;  High  and  Low 
Types  of  Hand(312) — Dimensions  of  Hand(315) — Proportions  of  Fingers(316) 
—the  Nails (3 17)— Anomalies  of  the  Hand(317)— Lines  of  the  Palm(318)— Papil- 
lary Lines  (3 19). 

CHAPTER  VI 


Pigmentation  and  Cutaneous  Apparatus (320) — Pigmentation  of  theHair(323) — of  the 
Skin (325)— of  the  Iris(325)— Form  of  the  Hair (327)— Anomalies  of  Pigment: 
Icthyosis,  Birth-marks,  Fvreckles,  etc. (329) — Anomalies  of  Hair(330). 

MORPHOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  CERTAIN  ORGANS  (STIGMATA) 

Synoptic  Chart  of  Stigmata(332j — Anomalies  of  the  Eye(333) — of  the  Ear(334) — of 
the  Nose(335)— of  the  Teeth (336)— Importance  of  the  Study  of  Morphology  (338) 
— Significance  of  the  Stigmata  of  Degeneration (342) — Distribution  of  Malforma- 
tions(344) — Individual  Number  of  Malformations (347) — Origin  of  Malforma- 
tions(355) — Humanity's  Dependence  upon  Woman(357) — Moral  and  Pedagogi- 
cal Problems  within  the  School (358). 


CONTENTS  xi 

CHAPTER  VII 

TECHNICAL  PART 

The  Form  (361) — Measurement  of  Stature(362) — the  Anthropometer(363) — the 
Sitting  Stature(365)— Total  Spread  of  Arms(367)— Thoracic  Perimeter (368)— 
Weight  (368) — Ponderal  Index (368) — Head  and  Cranium (369) — Cranioscopy 
(370)— Craniometry (373)— Cephalic  Index(376)— Measurements  of  Thorax(385) 
—of  Abdomen  (386). 

THE  PERSONAL  ERROR 

Need  of  Practical  Experience  in  Anthropology (387) — Average  Personal  Error(388) — 
Susceptibility  to  Suggestion (389). 

CHAPTER  VIII 
STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY 
Mean  Averages (39 1)— Seriation (396)— Quet61et's  Binomial  Curve (398). 

CHAPTER  IX 
THE  BIOGRAPHIC  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL  AND  HIS  ANTECEDENTS 

Biographic  Histories (404) — Remote  Antecedents (406) — Near  Biopathological  Ante- 
cedents(407) — Sociological  Antecedents(411) — School  Records(411) — Biographic 
Charts(422) — Psychic  Tests(425) — Typical  Biographic  History  of  an  Idiot 
Boy(434) — Proper  Treatment  of  Defective  Pupils(446) — Rational  Medico-peda- 
gogical Method  (448). 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  TO  ANTHROPOLOGY  FOR  THE 
PURPOSE  OF  DETERMINING  THE  MEDIAL  MAN 

Theory  of  the  Medial  Man(454) — Importance  of  Seriation(455) — De  Helguere's 
Curves (460)— Viola's  Medial  Man(463)— Human  Hybridism (466)— the  Medial 
Intellectual  and  Moral  Man(469) — Sexual  Morality(473) — Sacredness  of  Mater- 
nity (474) — Biological  Liberty  and  the  New  Pedagogy  (477). 

TABLE  OF  MEAN  PROPORTIONS  OP  THE  BODY  ACCORDING  TO  AGE (480). 
TABLES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX (485). 
TABLES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  lNDEx(491). 
GENERAL  INDEX: 

A.  INDEX  OF  NAMEs(501). 

B.  INDEX  OF  SuBJECTs(503). 


INTRODUCTION 


THE  MODERN  TENDENCIES  OF  ANTHROPOLOGY  AND  THE 
RELATION  THAT  THEY  BEAR  TO  PEDAGOGY 

HUMAN  HYGIENE 

The  Old  Anthropology. — Anthropology  was  defined  by  Broca 
as  "the  natural  history  of  man,"  and  was  intended  to  be  the  appli- 
cation of  the  "zoological  method"  to  the  study  of  the  human 
species. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  as  with  all  positive  sciences,  the  essential 
characteristic  of  Anthropology  is  its  "method."  We  could  not 
say,  if  we  wished  to  speak  quite  accurately,  that  "Anthropology 
is  the  study  of  man" ;  because  the  greater  part  of  acquirable  knowl- 
edge has  for  its  subject  the  human  race  or  the  individual  human 
being;  philosophy  studies  his  origin,  his  essential  nature,  his 
characteristics;  linguistics,  history  and  representative  art  inves- 
tigate the  collective  phenomena  of  physiological  and  social  orders, 
or  determine  the  morphological  characteristics  of  the  idealised 
human  body. 

Accordingly,  what  characterises  Anthropology  is  not  its  sub- 
ject: man;  but  rather  the  method  by  which  it  proposes  to  study 
him. 

The  selfsame  procedure  which  zoology,  a  branch  of  the  natural 
sciences,  applies  to  the  study  of  animals,  anthropology  must  apply 
to  the  study  of  man;  and  by  doing  so  it  enrolls  itself  as  a  science 
in  the  field  of  nature. 

Zoology  has  a  well-defined  point  of  departure,  that  clearly 
distinguishes  it  from  the  other  allied  sciences:  it  studies  the  living 
animal.  Consequently,  it  is  an  eminently  synthetic  science, 
because  it  cannot  proceed  apart  from  the  individual)  which  repre- 
sents in  itself  a  sum  of  complex  morphological  and  psychic  char- 
acteristics, associated  with  the  species;  and  which  furthermore, 
during  life,  exhibits  certain  special  distinguishing  traits  resulting 
from  instincts,  habits,  migration  and  geographical  distribution. 

i 


2  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Zoology  consequently  includes  a  vast  but  well-defined  field. 
Fundamentally,  it  is  a  descriptive  science,  and  when  the  general 
character  of  the  individual  living  creatures  has  been  determined, 
it  proceeds  to  draw  comparisons  between  them,  distinguishing 
genus  and  species,  and  thus  working  toward  a  classification.  Down 
to  the  time  of  Linnaeus,  these  were  its  limits;  but  since  the  studies 
of  Lamarck  and  Charles  Darwin,  it  has  gone  a  step  further,  and 
has  proceeded  to  investigate  the  origin  of  species,  an  example 
that  was  destined  to  be  followed  by  botany  and  biology  as  a  whole, 
which  is  the  study  of  living  things. 

When  anthropology  attained,  under  Broca,  the  dignity  of  a 
branch  of  the  natural  sciences,  the  evolutionary  theory  already 
held  the  field,  and  man  had  begun  to  be  studied  as  an  animal  in 
his  relation  to  species  of  the  lower  orders.  But,  just  as  in  zoology, 
the  fundamental  part  of  anthropology  was  descriptive;  and  the 
description  of  the  morphology  of  the  body  was  divided,  according 
to  the  method  followed,  into  anthropology,  or  the  method  of  inspec- 
tion, and  anthropometry,  or  the  method  of  measurements. 

By  these  means,  many  problems  important  to  the  biological 
side  of  the  subject  were  solved — such,  for  instance,  as  racial 
characteristics — and  a  classification  of  "the  human  races"  was 
achieved  through  the  evidences  afforded  by  comparative  studies. 

But  the  descriptive  part  of  anthropology  is  not  limited  to  the 
inspection  and  measurement  of  the  body;  on  the  contrary,  just 
as  in  zoology,  it  is  extended  to  include  the  habits  of  the  individual 
living  being;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  case  of  man,  the  language,  the 
manners  and  customs  (data  that  determine  the  level  of  civilisation), 
emigration  and  the  consequent  intermixture  of  races  in  the  orig- 
inal formation  of  nations,  thus  constituting  a  special  branch  of 
science  properly  known  by  the  name  of  ethnology. 

In  this  manner,  while  still  adhering  rigorously  to  zoological 
methods,  anthropology  found  itself  compelled  to  throw  out  nu- 
merous collateral  branches  into  widely  different  fields,  such  as  those 
of  linguistics  and  archaeology;  because  man  is  a  speaking  animal 
and  a  social  animal. 

One  strictly  anthropological  problem  is  that  of  the  origin 
of  man,  and  its  ultimate  analogy  with  that  of  the  other  animal 
species.  Hence  the  comparative  studies  between  man  and  the 
anthropoid  apes;  while  palaeontological  discoveries  of  pre-human 
forms,  such  as  the  pithecanthropus,  were  just  so  many  arguments 


INTRODUCTION  3 

calculated  to  bring  the  human  species  within  the  scheme  of  a 
biological  philosophy,  based  upon  evolution,  which  held  its  own, 
for  nearly  half  a  century,  on  the  battle-ground  of  natural  sciences, 
under  the  glorious  leadership  of  Darwin. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  that  it  offered  studies  and  problems  of 
direct  interest  to  man,  anthropology  failed  to  achieve  popularity. 
During  that  half  century  (the  second  half  of  the  Nineteenth), 
which  beheld  the  scientific  branches  of  biology  multiply  through- 
out the  entire  field  of  analytical  research,  from  histology  to  bio- 
chemistry, and  succeeded  especially  in  making  a  practical  appli- 
cation of  them  in  medicine,  Anthropology  failed  to  raise  itself 
from  the  status  of  a  pure  and  aristocratic,  in  other  words,  a  super- 
fluous science,  a  status  that  prevented  it  from  ranking  among  the 
sciences  of  primary  importance.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  while  zool- 
ogy is  a  required  study  in  the  universities,  Anthropology  still 
remains  an  elective  study,  which  in  Italy  is  relegated  to  three  or 
four  universities  at  most.  The  epoch  of  materialistic  philosophy 
and  analytical  investigation  could  naturally  hardly  be  expected 
to  prove  a  field  of  victory  for  man,  the  intelligent  animal,  and 
nature's  most  splendid  achievement  in  construction. 

The  impressive  magnificence  of  this  thought,  that  bursts  like 
pent-up  waters  from  the  results  of  positive  research  into  man  con- 
sidered as  a  living  individual,  was  forced  to  await  the  patient 
preparation  of  material  on  which  to  build,  such  as  the  gathering 
of  partial  and  disorganised  facts,  which  were  accumulated  through 
rigorous  and  minute  analyses,  conducted  under  the  guidance  of 
the  experimental  sciences.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  anthro- 
pology slowly  evolved  a  method  and,  by  doing  so,  raised  itself 
to  the  rank  of  a  science,  without  ever  once  being  utilised  for  prac- 
tical purposes  or  recognised  as  necessary  as  a  supplemental  or 
integral  element  of  other  sciences. 

One  branch  of  learning  which  might  have  utilised  the  important  scientific 
discoveries  regarding  the  antiquity  of  man,  his  nature  considered  as  an  animal, 
his  first  efforts  as  a  labourer  and  a  member  of  society,  is  pedagogy. 

What  could  be  more  truly  instructive  and  educative  than  to  describe  to 
children  that  first  heroic  Robinson  Crusoe,  primitive  man,  cast  away  on  this 
vast  island,  the  earth,  lost  in  the  midst  of  the  universe?  Mankind,  weak  and 
naked,  without  iron,  because  it  still  remained  mysteriously  hidden  in  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  without  fire  because  they  had  not  yet  discovered  the  means  of  pro- 
curing it;  stones  were  their  only  weapons  of  defense  against  the  ferocious  and 
gigantic  beasts  that  roared  on  all  sides  of  them  in  the  forests.  The  rude,  splin- 


4        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tered  stone,  the  first  handiwork  of  intelligent  man,  his  first  instrument  and  his 
first  weapon,  could  be  prepared  solely  from  one  kind  of  mineral,  of  which  the 
local  deposit  began  to  fail — a  state  of  things  which,  let  us  suppose,  occurred 
on  some  ocean  island.  Thereupon  the  men  constructed  a  small  boat  from  the 
bark  of  trees,  and  sped  over  the  waters,  in  search  of  the  needed  stone,  passing 
from  island  to  island,  with  scanty  nourishment,  without  lights  in  the  night-time, 
and  without  a  guide. 

These  marvelous  accounts  ought  to  be  easily  understood  by  children,  and 
to  awaken  in  them  an  admiration  for  their  own  kinship  with  humanity,  and  a 
profound  sense  of  indebtedness  to  the  mighty  power  of  labour,  which  to-day  is 
rendered  so  productive  and  so  easy  by  our  advanced  civilisation,  in  which  the 
environment,  thanks  to  the  works  of  man,  has  done  so  much  to  make  our  lives 
enjoyable. 

But  pedagogy,  no  less  than  the  other  branches  of  learning,  has  disdained  to 
accept  any  contribution  from  anthropology;  it  has  failed  to  see  man  as  the 
mighty  wrestler,  at  close  grips  with  environment,  man  the  toiler  and  transmuter, 
man  the  hero  of  creation.  Of  the  history  of  human  evolution,  not  a  single  ray 
sheds  light  upon  the  child  and  adolescent,  the  coming  generation.  The  schools 
teach  the  history  of  wars — the  history  of  disasters  and  crimes — which  were  pain- 
ful necessities  hi  the  successive  passages  through  civilisations  created  by  the 
labour  and  slow  perfectioning  of  humanity;  but  civilisation  itself,  which  abides 
in  the  evolution  of  labour  and  of  thought,  remains  hidden  from  our  children  hi  the 
darkness  of  silence. 

Let  us  compare  the  appearance  of  man  upon  the  earth  to  the  discovery  of 
the  motive  power  of  steam  and  to  the  subsequent  appearance  of  railways  as  a 
factor  in  our  social  life.  The  railway  has  no  limits  of  space,  it  overruns  the  world, 
unresting  and  unconscious,  and  by  doing  so  promotes  the  brotherhood  of  men, 
of  nations,  of  business  interests.  Let  us  suppose  that  we  should  choose  to 
remain  silent  about  the  work  performed  by  our  railways  and  their  social  signifi- 
cance in  the  world  to-day,  and  should  teach  our  children  only  about  the  accidents, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  newspapers,  and  keep  their  sensitive  minds  lingering  in 
the  presence  of  shattered  and  motionless  heaps  of  carriages,  amid  the  cries  of 
anguish  and  the  bleeding  limbs  of  the  victims. 

The  children  would  certainly  ask  themselves  what  possible  connection  there 
could  be  between  such  a  disaster  and  the  progress  of  civilisation.  Well,  this  is 
precisely  what  we  do  when,  from  all  the  prehistoric  and  historic  ages  of  humanity, 
we  teach  the  children  nothing  but  a  series  of  wars,  oppressions,  tyrannies  and 
betrayals;  and,  equipped  with  such  knowledge,  we  push  them  out,  in  all  their 
ignorance,  into  the  century  of  the  redemption  of  labour  and  the  triumph  of  uni- 
versal peace,  telling  them  that  "history  is  the  teacher  of  life." 

Modern  Anthropology :  Cesare  Lombroso  and  Criminal  Anthro- 
pology. The  Anthropological  Principles  of  Moral  Hygiene. — The 
credit  rests  with  Italy  for  having  rescued  Anthropology  from  a 
sort  of  scientific  Olympus,  and  led  it  by  new  paths  to  the  perform- 
ance of  an  eminent  and  practical  service. 

It  was  about  the  year  1855  that  Cesare  Lombroso  applied  the 


INTRODUCTION  5 

anthropological  method  first  to  the  study  of  the  insane,  and  then 
to  that  of  criminals,  having  perceived  a  similarity  or  relationship 
between  these  two  categories  of  abnormal  individuals.  The 
observation  and  measurement  of  clinical  subjects,  studied  especially 
in  regard  to  the  cranium  by  anthropometric  methods,  led  the 
young  innovator  to  discover  that  the  mental  derangements  of  the 
insane  were  accompanied  by  morphological  and  physical  abnor- 
malities that  bore  witness  to  a  profound  and  congenital  alteration 
of  the  entire  personality.  Accordingly,  for  the  purposes  of  diagno- 
sis, Lombroso  came  to  adopt  a  somatic  basis.  And  his  anthropo- 
logical studies  of  criminals  led  him  to  analogous  results. 

The  method  employed  was  in  all  respects  similar  to  the  natural- 
istic method  which  anthropology  had  taken  over  from  zoology; 
that  is  to  say,  the  description  of  the  individual  subject  considered 
chiefly  in  his  somatic  or  corporeal  personality,  but  also  in  his 
physiological  and  mental  aspect;  the  study  of  his  responsiveness 
to  his  environment,  and  of  his  habits  (manners  and  customs)] 
the  grouping  of  subjects  under  types  according  to  their  dominant 
characteristic  (classification) ;  and  finally,  the  study  of  their  origin, 
which,  in  this  case,  meant  a  sociological  investigation  into  the 
genesis  of  degenerate  and  abnormal  types.  Thus,  since  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Lombrosian  doctrine  spread  with  a  precocious  rapidity, 
it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  criminals  present  anoma- 
lies of  form,  or  rather  morphological  deviations  associated  with 
degeneration  and  known  under  the  name  of  stigmata  (now  called 
malformations},  which,  when  they  occur  together  in  one  and  the 
same  subject,  confer  upon  him  a  wellnigh  characteristic  aspect, 
notably  different  from  that  of  the  normal  individual;  in  other 
words,  they  stamp  him  as  belonging  to  an  inferior  type,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Lombroso 's  earlier  interpretation,  is  a  reversion  toward 
the  lower  orders  of  the  human  race  (negroid  and  mongoloid  types), 
as  evidenced  by  anomalies  of  the  vital  organs,  or  internal  animal- 
like  characteristics  (pithecoids) ;  and  that  such  stigmata  were 
often  accompanied  by  a  predisposition  to  maladies  tending  to 
shorten  life.  Side  by  side  with  his  somatic  chart,  Lombroso  pains- 
takingly prepared  a  physio-pathological  chart  of  criminal  subjects, 
based  upon  a  study  of  their  sensibility,  their  grasp  of  ideas,  their 
social  and  ethical  standards,  their  thieves'  jargon  and  tattoo- 
marks,  their  handwriting  and  literary  productions.  H 

And,  by  deducing  certain  common  characteristics  from  these 


6        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

complex  charts,  he  distinguished,  in  his  classic  work,  Delinquent 
Man,  a  variety  of  types,  such  as  the  morally  insane,  the  epileptic 
delinquent,  the  delinquent  from  impulse  or  passion  (irresistible 
impulsion),  the  insane  delinquent,  and  the  occasional  delinquent. 

In  this  way,  he  succeeded  in  classifying  a  series  of  types — 
what  we  might  call  sub-species — diverging  from  the  somatic  and 
psycho-moral  charts  of  normal  men.  But  the  common  bio- 
pathological  foundation  of  such  types  (with  the  exception  of  the 
last)  was  degeneration.  We  may  well  agree  with  Morselli  that, 
in  many  parts  of  his  treatise,  Lombroso  completed  and  amplified 
Morel,  whose  classic  work,  A  Study  of  the  Degeneration  of  the 
Human  Species,  was  published  in  France  at  a  time  when  Lombroso 
had  hardly  started  upon  his  anthropological  researches. 

Both  of  these  great  teachers  based  their  doctrine  upon  a 
naturalistic  concept  of  man,  and  then  proceeded  to  consider  him, 
through  all  his  anomalies  and  perversions,  in  relation  to  that 
extraneous  factor,  his  environment.  Morel,  indeed,  considers 
the  social  causes  of  degeneration,  that  is  to  say,  of  progressive 
organic  impoverishment,  as  more  important  than  the  individual 
phenomena;  they  act  upon  posterity  and  tend  to  create  a  human 
variety  deviating  from  the  normal  type.  Such  causes  may  be 
summed  up  as  including  whatever  tends  to  the  organic  detriment 
of  civilised  man:  such  (in  the  first  rank)  as  alcoholism,  poisoning 
associated  with  professional  industries  (metallic  poisons),  or  with 
lack  of  nutriment  (pellagra),  conditions  endemic  in  certain  locali- 
ties (goitre),  infective  maladies  (malaria,  tuberculosis),  denutrition 
(surme'nage).  It  may  be  said  that  whatever  produces  prolonged 
suffering,  or  whatever  we  class  under  the  term  vices,  or  even  the 
neglect  of  our  duties,  chief  among  which  is  that  of  working  (para- 
sitism of  the  rich),  or  any  of  the  causes  which  exhaust,  or  paralyse, 
or  perturb  our  normal  functions,  are  causes  of  degeneration,  of 
impoverishment  of  the  species. 

Such  is  the  doctrine  which  underlies  the  etiological  concept  of 
abnormal  personality  in  psychiatry  as  well  as  in  criminology,  or 
points  the  way  to  its  bio-social  sources. 

Accordingly,  just  as  general  Anthropology  sought  to  investigate 
the  origins  of  races  or  that  of  the  human  species  in  the  very  roots 
of  life,  so  criminal  Anthropology  searches  the  origins  of  defective 
personality  in  its  social  surroundings. 

The  ethical  problems  which  are  raised  by  such  a  doctrine 


INTRODUCTION  7 

cannot  fail  to  be  of  interest  to  us.  The  Lombrosian  theories, 
by  raising  these  problems,  have  not  only  shaken  the  foundations 
of  penal  law,  but  have  even  brought  about  a  moral  renovation  of 
conscience.  We  will  leave  to  the  jurists  the  great  civic  labor 
resulting  from  having  brought  the  individual  as  well  as  the  crime 
under  consideration,  in  relation  to  the  social  phenomenon  of 
delinquency — in  other  words,  of  having  substituted  an  anthro- 
pological for  a  speculative  attitude.  Whether  the  delinquent 
should  be  cured,  or  simply  isolated,  or  even  subjected  to  punish- 
ment; whether  the  prison  should  be  transformed  into  an  asylum 
for  the  criminal  insane ;  whether  the  penal  laws  should  be  reformed 
on  principles  of  a  higher  order  of  civil  morality :  these  are  problems 
which  interest  us  only  secondarily. 

What  does  interest  us  directly  as  educators  is  the  necessity  of 
laying  our  course  in  accordance  with  the  standard  of  social  morality 
which  such  a  doctrine  reveals  and  imposes  upon  us:  since  it  is  our 
duty  to  prepare  the  conscience  of  the  rising  generation.  And, 
furthermore,  to  consider  whether  the  organisation  of  our  schools 
and  of  their  methods  is  in  conformity  with  such  social  progress. 

If  we  cast  a  general  glance  at  social  ethics,  from  the  primitive 
beginnings  of  human  intercourse,  we  witness  the  evolution  of  the 
vendetta.  There  was,  first,  the  individual  vendetta.  It  was  a 
form  of  primordial  justice,  with  which  were  associated  the  senti- 
ments of  dignity,  honour  and  solidarity;  the  injured  party  avenged 
himself  by  slaying;  and  the  family  of  the  slain  retaliated  by  a  new 
vendetta  against  the  family  of  the  slayer;  and  thus  from  generation 
to  generation  the  tragic  heritage  continued  to  be  handed  down. 
Even  now,  in  certain  districts  of  civilised  countries  there  exist 
survivals  of  these  primitive  forms  of  justice.  In  such  cases,  the 
slayer  is  held  to  be,  not  only  honourable  but  virtuous.  Analogously, 
in  course  of  time,  the  individual  vendetta,  regulated  by  special 
formalities,  developed  into  the  duel  for  a  point  of  honour. 

At  a  more  advanced  period,  in  the  course  of  the  organisation 
of  society,  the  task  of  vengeance  was  taken  away  from  the  indi- 
vidual, and  the  social  administration  of  justice  was  established. 
Thereafter,  the  act  of  an  offender  was  punished  by  the  people 
collectively,  and  the  victims  of  the  act  had  no  other  recompense 
from  society  than  that  of  a  sense  of  satisfied  hatred. 

But  throughout  all  civil  progress,  from  the  most  primitive 
forms  of  society  down  to  our  own  times,  there  persisted,  as  a 


8        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

fundamental  principle,  the  concept  of  vengeance,  coupled  with  the 
two  great  moral  principles,  individually  and  collectively,  of  human 
society:  honour  and  justice.  The  naturalistic  concept  introduced 
by  the  Lombrosian  doctrine,  namely,  living  man  entering  as  a 
concrete  reality  into  the  midst  of  abstract  moral  principles, 
shatters  this  association  of  ideas,  and  by  so  doing  prepares  the 
way  for  a  new  order  of  things — which  is  not  a  progess  of  evolution, 
but  the  beginning  of  an  epoch.  Vengeance  disappears  in  the  new 
conception  of  the  defense  of  society  and  of  an  active  campaign 
for  the  progress  of  humanity;  and  it  ushers  in  an  epoch  of  redemp- 
tion and  of  solidarity,  in  which  all  limitations  of  human  brother- 
hood are  swept  away. 

The  theories  of  Morel  and  Lombroso  have  resulted  in  calling 
the  attention  of  civilised  man  to  all  the  types  of  the  physiologically 
inferior;  the  mentally  deficient,  epileptics,  delinquents;  shedding 
light  upon  their  pathological  personality,  and  transforming  into 
interest  and  pity  the  contempt  and  neglect  that  were  formerly 
the  portion  of  such  creatures.  In  this  way  science  has  accom- 
plished in  their  behalf  a  work  analogous  to  that  of  certain  saints 
on  behalf  of  lepers  and  sufferers  from  cancer  in  the  middle  ages. 
At  that  epoch,  and  even  down  to  the  beginning  of  modern  times, 
the  sick  were  abandoned  to  themselves  and  languished,  covered 
with  sores,  in  the  midst  of  the  horrors  of  infection;  lepers  were 
universally  shunned,  and  their  bodies  decomposed  without  succor. 
It  was  only  when  these  miserable  beings  began  to  awaken  pity, 
in  the  place  of  loathing  and  repulsion,  and  to  attract  the  charity 
of  saints,  instead  of  spreading  panic  among  egoists  and  cowards, 
that  the  care  of  the  sick  began  upon  a  vast  scale,  with  the  founda- 
tion of  hospitals,  the  progress  of  medicine,  and  later  of  hygiene. 

To-day  those  purulent  plague-spots  of  the  middle  ages  no 
longer  exist;  and  infection  is  being  combated  with  progressive 
success,  in  the  triumph  of  physical  health. 

Yet,  we  are  standing  to-day  on  the  selfsame  level  as  the  middle 
ages,  in  respect  to  moral  plague-spots  and  infections;  the  phe- 
nomenon of  criminality  spreads  without  check  or  succor,  and  up  to 
yesterday  it  aroused  in  us  nothing  but  repulsion  and  loathing. 
But  now  that  science  has  laid  its  finger  upon  this  moral  fester,  it 
demands  the  cooperation  of  all  mankind  to  combat  it. 

Accordingly  we  find  ourselves  in  the  epoch  of  hospitals  for  the 
morally  diseased,  the  century  of  their  treatment  and  cure;  we  have 


INTRODUCTION  9 

initiated  a  social  movement  toward  the  triumph  of  morality.  We 
educators  must  not  forget  that  we  have  inaugurated  the  epoch 
of  spiritual  health;  because  I  believe  that  it  is  we  who  are  destined 
to  be  the  true  physicians  and  nurses  of  this  new  cure.  From  the 
middle  ages  until  now,  the  science  of  medicine  has  slowly  been 
evolving  for  us  the  principles  required  to  guarantee  our  bodily 
health;  but  we  know  very  well  that  while  cleanliness  and  hygiene 
are  signs  of  civilisation,  it  is  its  moral  standard  that  establishes 
its  level. 

This  moral  solidarity  is  something  which  it  is  our  duty  to  under- 
stand thoroughly,  if  we  wish  to  undertake  the  noble  task  of  edu- 
cators in  the  Twentieth  Century,  which  was  prepared  in  advance 
by  the  intensive  intellectual  activity  of  the  century  of  science. 

Granting  the  social  phenomenon  of  crime,  we  ought  to  ask  our- 
selves: where  does  the  fault  lie?  If  we  are  to  acquit  the  individual 
criminal  of  responsibility,  it  falls  back  necessarily  upon  the  social 
community  through  which  the  causes  of  degeneration  and  disease 
have  filtered.  Accordingly,  it  is  we,  every  one  of  us,  who  are  at 
fault :  or  rather,  we  are  beginning  to  awaken  to  a  consciousness  that 
it  is  a  sin  to  foster  or  to  tolerate  such  social  conditions  as  make 
possible  the  suffering,  the  vices,  the  errors  that  lead  to  physiolog- 
ical pauperism,  to  pathology,  to  the  degeneration  of  posterity. 
The  idea  is  not  a  new  one:  all  great  truths  were  perceived  in  every 
age  by  the  elect  few;  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  doctrine 
of  Lombroso  are  to  be  already  found  in  Greek  philosophy  and  in 
that  of  Christ;  Aristotle,  in  his  belief  that  there  is  some  one  par- 
ticular organism  corresponding  to  each  separate  manifestation  of 
nature,  foreshadows  the  concept  of  the  correspondence  between  the 
morphological  and  psychic  personality;  and  St.  John  Chrisostom 
expounds  the  principle  of  moral  solidarity  in  the  collective  respon- 
sibility of  society,  when  he  says:  "you  will  render  account,  not 
only  of  your  own  salvation,  but  of  that  of  all  mankind;  whoever 
prays  ought  to  feel  himself  burdened  with  the  interests  of  the  entire 
human  race." 

Now,  if  it  is  not  yet  in  our  power  to  achieve  a  social  reform 
based  on  the  eradication  of  degenerative  causes — since  society 
can  be  perfected  only  gradually — it  is  nevertheless  within  our 
power  to  prepare  the  conscience  for  acceptance  of  the  new  morality, 
and  by  educational  means  to  help  along  the  civil  progress  which 
science  has  revealed  to  us.  The  honest  man,  the  worthy  man,  the 


10  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

man  of  honour,  is  not  he  who  avenges  himself;  but  he  who  works 
for  something  outside  himself,  for  the  sake  of  society  at  large,  in 
order  to  purify  it  of  its  evils  and  its  sins,  and  advance  it  on  its  path 
of  future  progress.  In  this  way,  even  though  we  fail  to  prepare 
the  material  environment,  we  shall  have  prepared  efficient  men. 

In  addition  to  this  momentous  principle  of  social  ethics,  the 
Lombrosian  doctrines  confront  us  squarely  with  the  philosophic 
question  of  liberty  of  action,  the  controverted  question  of  Stuart 
Mill,  namely  that  of  "free  will."  The  libertarians  admit  the 
freedom  of  the  will  as  one  of  the  noblest  of  human  prerogatives, 
on  which  the  responsibility  for  our  acts  depends;  the  determinists 
recognise  that  the  act  of  volition  obeys  certain  predetermined 
causes.  Now  the  Lombrosian  theories  find  these  causes,  not  after 
the  fashion  of  the  Pythagoreans,  in  cosmic  laws  or  astrology,  but 
in  the  constitution  of  the  organism,  thus  serving  as  a  powerful  illus- 
tration of  that  physiological  determinism,  under  whose  guidance 
modern  positive  philosophy  draws  its  inspiration.* 

In  the  case  of  criminality,  the  actions  of  the  degenerate  delin- 
quent are  dependent  upon  a  multiplicity  of  internal  factors,  that 
are  almost  necessarily  governed  by  special  predispositions.  But, 
also  in  accordance  with  the  Lombrosian  doctrine,  there  are  external 
factors  which  concur  in  determining  acts  of  volition,  factors 
relating  to  the  environment,  studied  in  accordance  with  rather 
vast  conceptions:  the  actions  of  the  individual  are  determined 
in  advance  by  that  social  intercourse  in  which  the  great  phenomena 
of  any  given  civilisation  have  their  necessary  origin — phenomena 
such  as  crime,  prostitution,  the  grade  of  culture  accessible  to  the 
majority,  the  character  of  industrial  products,  the  limits  of  general 
mortality.  Now,  just  as  there  are  necessary  fluctuations  in  the 
tables  of  mortality,  so  also  there  are  fluctuations  in  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  those  individual  phenomena  that  are  looked  upon 
as  crimes :  and  in  the  one  case  no  less  than  in  the  other,  those  who 
are  predisposed  are  the  ones  in  whom  occurs  the  necessary  outbreak 
of  phenomena  having  their  origin  in  society. 

This  constitutes  in  criminology,  as  well  as  in  psychiatry,  the  re- 
sultant of  all  etiological  concepts,  pertaining  to  the  interpretation 
of  individual  phenomena.  It  is  precisely  the  same  concept  as  that 
so  exhaustively  demonstrated  by  Que"telet,  with  the  aid  of  European 
statistics,  in  his  Social  Physics,  and  it  has  come  to  represent  in 

*  From  a  work  by  E.  MORSELLI:  Cesare  Lombroso  and  Scientific  Philosophy. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

modern  science  that  fundamental  concept  which  was  to  be  found 
in  all  the  great  religions,  of  the  dependence  of  the  individual  upon 
a  governing  force  that  is  superior  to  him.  This  interpretation  of 
individual  phenomena  cannot  be  ignored  in  the  great  problems 
of  education;  because  the  more  literally  we  interpret  the  doctrine 
here  set  forth,  just  so  much  the  less  trust  must  be  placed  in  the 
efficacy  of  education  as  a  modifying  influence  upon  personality, 
while  it  will  acquire  new  importance  as  a  co-worker  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  social  epochs  and  individual  activities,  over  which  it 
should  exercise  a  watchful  guidance. 

But  meanwhile  it  is  of  interest  to  us  to  note  how  the  anthro- 
pological movement,  introduced  with  great  simplicity  of  method, 
without  any  scientific  or  philosophical  preconceptions,  has  led  the 
investigations  of  psychiatry  into  vast  and  unsuspected  fields  of 
social  ethics,  bringing  into  practice  fundamental  reforms,  analo- 
gous to  those  relating  to  penal  law. 

Achille  De  Giovanni  and  Physiological  Anthropology;  Anthro- 
pological Principles  of  Physical  Hygiene. — Another  practical  devel- 
opment of  anthropology  is  that  instituted  by  Professor  De  Gio- 
vanni, who  has  introduced  into  his  medical  clinic  at  Padua  the 
anthropological  method  in  the  clinical  examination  of  patients. 
He  applies  the  well-known  naturalistic  procedure,  namely,  the 
discription  of  individuals,  their  classification  into  types,  according 
to  common  fundamental  characteristics,  and  the  etiological  study 
of  their  personality.  But  while  Lombroso  took  note  of  malforma- 
tions solely  in  relation  to  other  symptoms  of  degeneration, 
De  Giovanni  has  established  a  strictly  physiological  basis  for  his 
investigations.  Accordingly,  he  considers  the  human  individual 
in  his  entirety,  as  a  functionating  organism,  and  he  regards  all 
inharmonious  bodily  proportions  as  signifying  a  necessary  predis- 
position to  certain  determined  forms  of  illness.  With  this  end  in 
view,  he  does  not  concern  himself  about  single  malformations, 
such  for  example  as  prognathism,  the  frontal  angle,  etc.,  but  rather 
with  the  general  relations  of  development  between  the  bust  which 
contains  the  organs  essential  to  vegetative  life,  and  the  limbs;  and 
from  the  external  morphology  of  the  bust,  determined  by  measure- 
ments, he  seeks  to  establish  the  reciprocal  relations  in  development 
within  the  visceral  cavities:  "the  proportions  of  the  human  body 
depend  upon  the  development  of  its  organs;  and  equally  with  its 
proportions,  the  whole  physiological  strength  of  the  body  depends 


12  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

upon  its  organs  taken  collectively."  Whoever  has  a  defective 
chest  capacity  not  only  possesses  a  smaller  allowance  of  organs 
fitted  for  respiration  and  circulation  of  the  blood,  but  as  a  result 
of  such  anomaly  of  development  he  is  also  predisposed  to  at- 
tacks of  special  maladies,  such  for  example  as  chronic  catarrh  of 
the  bronchial  tubes  or  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  Whoever,  on  the 
contrary,  is  over-developed  in  abdominal  dimensions,  will  be  sub- 
ject to  disturbances  of  the  digestive  system  and  of  the  liver.  In 
his  classic  work,  Morphology  of  the  Human  Body,  De  Giovanni 
proceeds  to  elaborate  a  doctrine  of  temperaments,  and  of  their 
several  predispositions  to  disease,  the  tendency  of  which  is  to 
transfer  the  basis  of  medicine  from  a  study  of  diseases  to  that  of 
the  individual  patients,  and  to  revive  in  modern  days  the  ancient 
concepts  of  the  Greek  school  of  medicine,  which  from  the  time  of 
Hippocrates  and  Galen  drew  up  admirable  charts  of  the  funda- 
mental physical  types.  In  place  of  the  ancient  classification  of 
temperaments  into  nervous,  sanguine,  bilious  and  lymphatic,  we 
have  to-day  as  substitutes,  according  to  the  school  of  De  Giovanni, 
morphological  types  that  are  very  nearly  equivalent,  and  in  which 
the  predominant  disorders  are  respectively  diseases  of  the  heart, 
the  nervous  system,  the  liver  and  the  lungs. 

In  short,  the  result  of  this  theory  has  been  to  establish  an 
internal  factor  of  predisposition  to  disease,  analogous  to  that 
established  by  Lombroso  as  a  predisposition  to  the  phenomena  of 
crime.  And  even  here  the  mesogenic  factors,  that  is,  the  influence 
of  environment,  must  be  taken  into  consideration:  but  environ- 
ment acts  equally  upon  all  individuals :  nearly  everyone  encounters, 
in  his  surroundings,  that  nerve-strain  which  leads  to  cardiac 
disorders  and  to  neurasthenia;  almost  everyone  encounters  the 
bacilli  of  tuberculosis;  the  causes  of  general  mortality  are  dictated 
by  the  very  conditions  of  civilisation.  But  among  the  vast  major- 
ity who  pass  unharmed  along  the  insidious  paths  of  adaptation, 
only  a  few  fall  victims  to  the  particular  disease  to  which  some  spe- 
cial anomaly  of  their  organism  predisposes  them.  In  this  way  we 
can  understand  how  it  happens  that  certain  ones  have  reason  to 
dread  a  cold  that  will  develop  into  bronchitis,  and  others  on  the 
contrary  must  guard  themselves  from  errors  in  diet  which  will 
lead  to  intestinal  disorders. 

The  part  of  De  Giovanni's  theory  which  is  of  special  interest 
is  that  which  leads  to  a  consideration  of  the  ontogenetic  development 


INTRODUCTION  13 

in  relation  to  the  anomalies  of  the  physio-morphological  personal- 
ity: "At  every  epoch  of  life  this  principle  is  applicable:  Namely, 
that  the  reason  for  a  special  predisposition  to  disease  is  to  be  found 
in  a  special  organic  morphology.  The  individual  is  in  a  ceaseless 
state  of  transformation,  and  consequently  at  different  periods  of 
his  life  he  may  show  a  susceptibility  to  different  diseases."  A 
person  who  is  predisposed  to  suffer  continually  from  some  com- 
plaint during  his  adult  years,  was  usually  unwell  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  childhood,  although  from  some  other  disease;  and 
with  this  as  a  basis,  a  scientific  system  of  observation  could  speak 
prophetically  regarding  the  physio-pathological  destiny  of  a 
child.  It  is  known,  for  example,  that  children  subject  to  scrofula 
are  predisposed  to  arrive  at  maturity  with  an  undeveloped  chest 
and  a  tendency  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

From  our  point  of  view  as  educators,  the  doctrine  of  tempera- 
ments, and  of  their  respective  predispositions  to  disease,  offers  a 
deep  interest,  the  nature  of  which  is  made  evident  by  the  author 
of  the  theory  himself :  for  he  points  out  that  the  period  of  childhood 
is  the  one  best  fitted  in  which  to  combat  the  abnormal  predisposi- 
tions of  the  organism,  wisely  guiding  its  development,  to  the  final 
end  of  achieving  an  ideal  of  health,  which  depends  upon  the  har- 
mony of  form  and  consequently  of  functions,  in  other  words,  upon 
the  full  attainment  of  physical  beauty. 

Here  also,  as  in  the  Lombrosian  doctrines,  etiology  fulfils  the 
lofty  task  of  throwing  light  upon  the  causal  links  between  the  bio- 
sociologic  causes  and  the  congenital  anomalies  of  the  physiological 
personality.  The  hereditary  tendencies  to  disease,  the  errors  of 
sexual  hygiene,  especially  those  regarding  maternity,  reveal  to  us 
the  principal  causes  of  that  accumulation  of  imperfections  that 
oppress  and  deform  the  average  normal  human  being.  It  is  be- 
cause of  such  errors  and  such  ignorance  that  hardly  any  of  us 
attain  that  harmonic  beauty  that  would  render  us  immune  to 
the  treacheries  of  environment,  and  enable  us  to  achieve,  in 
the  triumphant  security  of  good  health,  our  normal  biological 
development. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  it  is  etiology  which,  applied 
to  the  Lombrosian  doctrines,  reveals  the  faults  of  society,  the 
sins  of  the  world,  and,  applied  to  the  theories  of  De  Giovanni, 
reveals  its  errors;  and  that  from  the  two  together  there  results  a 

sort  of  ethical  guide  leading  toward  the  supreme  ideal  of  the 
2 


14  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

purification  of  the  world  and  the  perfectionment  of  the  human  species. 
These  are  ideals  which  were  in  part  cherished  by  the  Greeks,  who 
made  their  system  of  education  the  basis  of  their  physical  develop- 
ment. Such  physiological  doctrines  are  precisely  what  we  also 
need  to  round  out  our  plan  for  a  moral  education. 

Giuseppe  Sergi  and  Pedagogic  Anthropology:  Anthropological 
Bases  of  Human  Hygiene. — It  is  also  an  Italian  to  whom  we  owe 
that  practical  extension  of  anthropology  that  leads  us  straight  into 
the  field  of  pedagogy.  It  was  my  former  teacher,  Giuseppe  Sergi, 
who,  as  early  as  1886,  defended  with  the  ardor  of  a  prophet  the 
new  scientific  principle  of  studying  the  pupils  in  our  schools  by 
methods  prescribed  by  anthropology.  Like  the  scientists  who 
preceded  him,  he  was  thus  led  to  substitute  (in  the  field  of  pedagogy) 
the  human  individual  taken  from  actual  life,  in  place  of  general 
principles  or  abstract  philosophical  ideas. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  while  the  doctrines  of  Lombroso  and  De 
Giovanni  are  profoundly  reformatory,  they  nevertheless  offer  us 
nothing  more  substantial  than  certain  new  ideals  of  morality  and 
social  improvement.  But  the  really  practical  field  in  which  these 
ideals  might  in  a  large  measure  be  realised  is  the  school. 

What  progress  would  result  for  humanity  if,  on  the  basis  of 
these  new  ethical  principles,  we  contented  ourselves  with  trans- 
forming our  prisons  into  insane  asylums?  Such  scanty  fruit  might 
well  be  compared  to  the  mercy  of  that  mediaeval  lordling  who, 
out  of  consideration  for  a  gentleman,  commuted  his  sentence  from 
hanging  to  decapitation.  And  scanty  fruit  would  also  be  reaped 
by  the  science  of  medicine  if,  in  its  new  anthropological  develop- 
ment, it  should  content  itself  merely  with  diagnosing  the  personal- 
ity of  the  patient,  in  addition  to  the  disease;  that  is  to  say,  for 
example,  if,  instead  of  telling  a  patient  that  his  attack  of  bronchitis 
would  be  cured  within  twenty  days,  it  should  go  on  to  predict, 
on  the  basis  of  the  morphology  of  his  body,  that  he  would  infallibly 
fall  ill  every  year,  until  such  time  as  pulmonary  tuberculosis  should 
put  a  fatal  ending  to  his  days. 

On  the  contrary,  behind  the  light  of  ideality  that  shimmers 
through  and  across  these  doctrines,  we  perceive  our  plain  duty  to 
trace  out  a  path  that  will  lead  to  a  regeneration  of  humanity.  If 
some  practical  line  of  action  is  to  result,  it  will  undoubtedly  have 
to  be  exerted  upon  humanity  in  the  course  of  development,  in  other 
words,  at  that  period  of  life  when  the  organism,  being  still  in  the 


INTRODUCTION  15 

course  of  formation,  may  be  effectively  directed  and  consequently 
corrected  in  its  mode  of  growth. 

Accordingly,  the  possible  solution  of  the  most  momentous 
social  problems,  such  as  those  of  criminality,  predisposition  to 
disease,  and  degeneration,  may  be  hoped  for  only  within  the  limits 
of  that  space  which  society  sets  aside  for  guiding  the  new  genera- 
tions in  their  development. 

In  the  school,  we  have  hitherto  retained,  almost  as  a  principle 
of  justice,  a  leveling  uniformity  among  the  pupils:  an  abstract 
equality  which  seeks  to  guide  all  these  separate  childish  individu- 
alities toward  a  single  type  which  cannot  be  called  an  idealised 
type,  because  it  does  not  represent  a  standard  of  perfection,  but 
is  on  the  contrary  a  non-existent  philosophical  abstraction:  the 
Child.  Educators  are  prepared  for  their  practical  services  to 
childhood,  by  studies  based  upon  this  abstract  infantile  personality; 
and  they  enter  upon  their  active  work  in  school  with  the  precon- 
ception that  they  must  discover  in  every  pupil  a  more  or  less  faith- 
ful incarnation  of  the  said  type;  and  thus,  year  after  year,  they 
delude  themselves  with  the  idea  that  they  have  understood  and 
educated  the  child.  Now,  this  supposed  uniformity  cannot  exist 
in  the  children  of  a  human  race  so  varied  that  it  can  produce,  at 
the  selfsame  time,  a  Musolino*  and  a  Luccheni,*  a  Guglielmo 
Marconi  and  a  Giosue  Carducci.  All  the  different  social  types 
of  men  who  labor  with  their  hands  and  with  their  brains,  the 
transformers  of  their  environment,  the  producers  of  wealth,  the 
directors  of  governments,  equally  with  the  undistinguished  crowd 
of  parasites,  the  enemies  of  society,  all  lived  together  in  childhood, 
sitting  side  by  side,  upon  the  same  school  benches. 

It  was  in  1898  that  the  first  Italian  Pedagogical  Congress  was 
held  in  Turin,  and  was  attended  by  about  three  thousand  educators. 
Under  the  spur  of  a  new  passion,  that  made  me  foresee  the  future 
mission  and  transformation  of  a  chosen  social  class,  setting  forth 
upon  a  glorious  task  of  redemption — the  class  of  educators — I 
attended  the  Congress.  I  was  at  that  time  an  interloper,  because 
the  subsequent  felicitous  union  between  medicine  and  pedagogy 
still  remained  a  thing  undreamed  of,  in  the  thoughts  of  that  period. 
We  had  reached  the  third  day  of  our  sessions,  and  were  all  awaiting 
with  interest  an  address  by  Professor  Ildebrando  Bencivenni, 
who  was  announced  to  speak  upon  the  theme  of  "The  School  that 

*MUSOLINO  was  a  brigand,  and  LUCCHENI  an  anarchist  and  regicide. 


16  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Educates."  The  discussion  of  this  subject  was  expected  to  con- 
stitute the  substantial  work  of  the  Congress,  which  seemed  to 
have  been  called  together  chiefly  in  order  to  solve  the  problem  of 
the  greatest  pedagogic  importance:  how  to  give  a  moral  education. 
It  was  that  very  iriorning,  just  as  the  session  was  opening,  that  the 
frightful  news  burst  upon  us  like  a  thunderbolt,  that  the  Empress, 
Elizabeth  of  Austria,  had  been  assassinated,  and  that  once  again 
an  Italian  had  struck  the  blow!  The  third  regicide  in  Europe 
within  a  brief  time,  that  was  due  to  an  Italian  hand! 

The  entire  public  press  was  unanimously  stirred  to  indigna- 
tion against  the  educators  of  the  people;  and  as  a  demonstration 
of  hostility,  they  all  absented  themselves  that  day  from  partici- 
pating in  the  Congress. 

There  was  something  approaching  a  tumult  in  the  ranks  of 
teachers;  inasmuch  as  they  felt  themselves  innocent,  they  pro- 
tested against  the  calumny  of  the  newspapers  in  thus  unjustly 
holding  them  responsible. 

Amid  the  intense  silence  of  the  assembly,  Bencivenni  delivered 
a  splendid  discourse  regarding  the  reform  of  educative  methods 
in  the  school.  Next  in  order,  I  took  the  platform  and,  speaking 
as  a  physician,  I  said:  It  will  be  all  in  vain  for  you  to  reform  the 
methods  of  moral  education  in  our  schools,  if  you  do  not  bear  in 
mind  that  certain  individuals  exist,  who  are  the  very  ones  capable 
of  committing  such  unspeakable  deeds,  and  who  pass  through 
school  without  ever  once  being  influenced  in  any  manner  by  educa- 
tion. There  exist  various  categories  of  abnormal  children,  who 
will  fruitlessly  go  through  the  same  grade  over  and  over  again, 
disturbing  the  routine  and  discipline  of  the  class:  and  in  spite  of 
punishments  and  reprimands,  they  will  end  by  being  expelled 
without  having  learned  anything  at  all,  without  having  been  modi- 
fied in  any  manner.  What  becomes  of  these  individuals  who, 
even  in  childhood,  reveal  themselves  as  the  future  rebels  and  ene- 
mies of  society?  Yet  we  leave  such  a  dangerous  class  in  the  most 
complete  abandonment.  Now,  it  is  useless  to  reform  the  school 
and  its  methods,  if  the  reformed  school  and  the  reformed  methods 
are  still  going  to  fail  to  reach  the  very  children  who,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  society,  are  most  in  need  of  being  reached !  Any  method 
whatever  suffices  to  fit  a  sane  and  normal  child  for  a  useful  and 
moral  life.  The  reform  that  is  demanded  in  school  and  in 
pedagogy  is  one  that  will  lead  to  the  protection  of  all  children 


INTRODUCTION  17 

during  their  years  of  development,  including  those  who  have 
shown  themselves  refractory  to  the  environment  of  social  life. 

Thus  I  laid  the  first  stone  toward  the  education  of  mentally 
deficient  children  and  the  foundation  of  special  schools  for  them. 
The  work  which  followed  forms,  I  think,  the  first  historic  page  of 
a  great  regeneration  in  the  whole  class  of  teachers  and  of  a  profound 
reform  in  the  school;  a  question  so  momentous  that  it  spread  rap- 
idly throughout  all  Italy  and  was  followed  by  the  establishment 
of  institutes  and  classes  designed  expressly  for  the  deficient;  and, 
most  important  of  all,  by  the  universal  conviction  which  it  carried, 
it  also  constituted  the  first  page  of  pedagogy  reformed  upon  an 
anthropological  basis. 

This  is  precisely  the  new  development  of  pedagogy  that  goes 
under  the  name  of  scientific:  in  order  to  educate,  it  is  essential  to 
know  those  who  are  to  be  educated.  "  Taking  measurements  of 
the  head,  the  stature,  etc."  (in  other  words,  applying  the  anthro- 
pological method),  "is,  to  be  sure,  not  in  itself  the  practice  of 
pedagogy,"  says  Sergi,  in  speaking  of  what  the  biological  sciences 
have  contributed  to  this  branch  of  learning  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  "But  it  does  mean  that  we  are  following  the  path  that 
leads  to  pedagogy,  because  we  cannot  educate  anyone  until  we 
know  him  thoroughly." 

Here  again,  in  the  field  of  pedagogy,  the  naturalistic  method 
must  lead  us  to  the  study  of  the  separate  subjects,  to  a  description 
of  them  as  individuals,  and  their  classification  on  a  basis  of  char- 
acteristics in  common;  and  since  the  child  must  be  studied  not  by 
himself  alone,  but  also  in  relation  to  the  factors  of  his  origin  and 
his  individual  evolution — since  every  one  of  us  represents  the 
effect  of  multifold  causes — it  follows  that  the  etiological  side  of  the 
pedagogical  branch  of  modern  anthropology,  like  all  its  other 
branches,  necessarily  invades  the  field  of  biology  and  at  the  same 
time  of  sociology. 

Among  the  types  which  it  will  be  of  pedagogic  interest  to  trace 
in  school-children,  we  must  undoubtedly  find  those  that  corre- 
spond to  the  childhood  of  those  abnormal  individuals  already  stud- 
ied in  Lombroso's  Criminal  Anthropology,  and  in  De  Giovanni's 
Clinical  Morphology. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  a  new  study,  because  the  characteristics  of 
the  child  are  not  those  of  the  adult  reduced  to  a  diminutive  scale, 
but  they  constitute  childhood  characteristics.  Man  changes  as  he 


18  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

grows;  the  body  itself  not  only  undergoes  an  increase  in  volume, 
but  a  profound  evolution  in  the  harmony  of  its  parts  and  the  com- 
position of  its  tissues;  in  the  same  way,  the  psychic  personality  of 
the  man  does  not  grow,  but  evolves;  like  the  predisposition  to 
disease  which  varies  at  different  ages  in  each  individual  considered 
pathologically.  For  all  those  anomalous  types  which  to-day  are 
included  under  the  popular  term  of  deficients,  for  the  pathological 
weaklings  who  reveal  symptoms  of  scrofula  or  rickets,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  special  schools  and  methods  of  education  are  essential. 
We  teachers  would  like,  through  educative  means,  to  counteract 
the  ultimate  consequences  of  degeneration  and  predisposition  to 
disease:  if  criminal  anthropology  has  been  able  to  revolutionise  the 
penalty  in  modern  civilisation,  it  is  our  duty  to  undertake,  in  the 
school  of  the  future,  to  revolutionise  the  individual.  And  by  achiev- 
ing this  ideal,  pedagogic  anthropology  will  to  a  large  extent  have 
taken  the  place  of  criminal  anthropology,  just  as  schools  for  the 
abnormal  and  feeble,  multiplied  and  perfected  under  the  protection 
of  an  advanced  civilisation,  will  in  a  large  measure  have  replaced 
the  prisons  and  the  hospitals. 

We  owe  to  the  intuitive  genius  of  Giuseppe  Sergi  the  conception 
of  a  form  of  pedagogic  anthropology  far  more  exact  in  its  methods 
of  investigation  than  anything  which  had  hitherto  been  fore- 
shadowed. This  master  takes  the  ground  that  a  study  of  abnormal 
and  weakly  children  is  a  task  of  absolutely  secondary  importance. 
What  is  imperative  for  us  to  know,  he  claims,  is  normal  humanity, 
if  we  are  to  guide  it  intelligently  toward  that  biological  and  moral 
perfection,  on  which  the  progress  of  humanity  must  depend.  If 
general  pedagogy  is  destined  to  be  transformed  under  a  naturalistic 
impulse,  this  will  be  effected  only  when  anthropology  turns  its 
investigations  to  the  normal  human  being. 

Educators  are  still  very  far  from  having  a  real  knowledge  of  that 
collective  body  of  school-children,  on  whom  a  uniformity  of  method, 
of  encouragement  and  punishment  is  blindly  inflicted;  if,  instead 
of  this,  the  child  could  be  brought  before  the  teacher's  eyes  as  a 
living  individuality,  he  would  be  forced  to  adopt  very  different 
standards  of  judgment,  and  would  be  shaken  to  the  very  depths 
of  his  conscience  by  the  revelation  of  a  responsibility  hitherto 
unsuspected. 

Let  us  take  one  or  two  examples;  let  us  consider,  among  the 
pupils,  one  child  who  is  very  poor. 


INTRODUCTION  19 

Studied  by  the  anthropological  method,  he  is  revealed,  in 
every  personal  physiological  detail,  as  an  inferior  type.  The  child 
of  poverty,  as  Niceforo  has  well  shown,  is  an  inferior  in  stature, 
in  cranium,  in  weight,  in  muscular  and  intellectual  strength;  and 
the  malformations,  resulting  from  defects  of  growth,  condemn 
him  to  an  aesthetic  inferiority;  in  other  words,  environment,  mode 
of  living,  and  nutrition  may  result  in  modifying  even  the  relative 
beauty  of  the  individual.  The  normal  man  may  bear  within  him 
a  germ  of  physical  beauty  inherited  from  parents  who  begot  him 
normally,  and  yet  this  germ  may  not  be  able  to  develop,  because 
impeded  by  environment.  Accordingly,  physical  beauty  consti- 
tutes in  itself  a  class  privilege.  This  child,  weak  in  mind  and  in 
muscular  force,  when  compared  with  the  child  of  wealth,  grown  up 
in  a  favorable  environment,  shows  less  attractive  manners,  because 
he  has  been  reared  in  an  atmosphere  of  social  inferiority,  and  in 
school  is  classed  as  a  pariah.  Less  good  looking  and  less  refined, 
he  fails  to  enlist  the  sympathy  which  the  teacher  so  readily  con- 
cedes to  the  courteous  manners  of  more  fortunate  children;  less 
intelligent  himself,  and  unable  to  look  for  help  from  parents  who, 
more  than  likely,  are  illiterate,  he  fails  to  obtain  the  encouragement 
of  praise  and  high  credit  marks  that  are  lavished  upon  stronger 
children,  who  have  no  need  of  being  encouraged.  Thus  it  happens 
that  the  down-trodden  of  society  are  also  the  down-trodden  in  the 
school.  And  we  call  this  justice;  and  we  say  that  demerit  is  pun- 
ished and  merit  is  rewarded;  but  in  this  way  we  make  ourselves 
the  sycophants  of  nature  and  of  social  error,  and  not  the  adminis- 
trators of  justice  in  education! 

On  the  other  hand,  let  us  examine  another  child,  living  in  an 
agreeable  environment,  in  the  higher  social  circles;  he  possesses  all 
the  physical  attraction  and  grace  that  render  childhood  charming. 
He  is  intelligent,  smiling,  gentle-mannered;  at  the  cost  of  small 
effort  he  gives  his  teacher  ample  satisfaction  by  his  progress,  and 
even  if  the  teacher's  method  of  instruction  happens  to  be  somewhat 
faulty,  the  child's  family  hasten  privately  to  make  up  for  the  defi- 
ciency. This  child  is  destined  to  reap  a  harvest  of  praise  and  re- 
wards; the  teacher,  egotistically  complacent  over  the  abundant 
fruit  gathered  with  so  little  effort,  and  the  moral  and  aesthetic 
satisfaction  derived  from  the  fortunate  pupil,  gives  him  unmeasured 
affection  and  smooths  his  whole  course  through  school.  But 
if  we  study  the  rich,  intelligent,  prize-winning  child  carefully,  we 


20  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

find  that  he,  too,  is  not  perfect  in  his  anthropological  development; 
he  is  too  narrow-chested.  This  is  the  penalty  of  the  rich  and  the 
studious;  every  privilege  brings  its  own  peril;  every  benefit 
contains  a  snare;  every  one  of  us  to-day,  without  the  light  of  science, 
runs  the  risk  of  diminishing  our  physiological  equilibrium,  by  living 
in  an  environment  that  contains  so  many  defects.  The  child  of 
luxury,  living  continually  indoors,  diligently  studying  in  his  well- 
warmed  home,  under  his  mother's  vigilant  eye,  is  impeding  the 
development  of  his  own  chest;  and  when  he  has  completed  his 
growth  and  his  education,  will  find  himself  with  insufficient  lungs; 
his  physical  personality  will  have  been  permanently  thrown  out  of 
equilibrium  by  a  defective  environment.  This  highly  cultured 
man  may  some  day  find  himself  urged  on  to  big  endeavour;  his 
intelligence  will  create  vast  ideals,  but  he  will  not  have  at  his 
disposal  the  physical  force  that  is  so  strictly  associated  with  the 
power  to  draw  from  the  surrounding  air  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
oxygen  by  means  of  respiration.  The  spirit  is  ready,  but  the  flesh 
is  weary;  and  all  his  ambitious  hopes  may  be  shattered  in  the 
very  flower  of  life  by  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  to  which  he  has 
himself  created  an  artificial  predisposition. 

It  is  our  duty  to  understand  the  individual,  in  order  to  avoid 
these  fatal  errors;  and  to  arise  to  higher  standards  of  justice, 
founded  upon  the  real  exigencies  of  life — guided  by  that  spirit  of 
love  which  is  essential  to  the  teacher,  in  order  to  render  him  truly 
an  educator  of  humanity. 

Love  is  the  essential  spirit  of  fecundity  whose  one  purpose  is  to 
beget  life.  And  in  the  teacher,  love  of  humanity  must  find 
expression  through  his  work,  because  the  very  purpose  of  love  is  to 
create  something.  Accordingly,  this  spirit  of  fecundity  ought  to 
produce  the  teacher's  mission,  which  to-day  is  the  mission  of 
reforming  the  school  and  accepting  the  proud  duty  of  universal 
motherhood,  destined  to  protect  all  mankind,  the  normal  and 
abnormal  alike.  This  is  a  reform,  not  only  of  the  school,  but  of 
society  as  a  whole,  because  through  the  redeeming  and  protective 
labours  of  pedagogy,  the  lowest  human  manifestations  of  degenera- 
tion and  disease  will  disappear;  and,  more  important  still,  it  will 
make  it  henceforth  impossible  for  normal  human  beings,  conceived 
from  germs  that  promise  strength  and  beauty,  little  by  little  to  lose 
that  beauty  and  strength  along  the  rough  paths  of  life,  through 
which  no  one  has  hitherto  had  the  knowledge  to  guide  them. 


INTRODUCTION  21 

"In  the  social  life  of  to-day  an  urgent  need  has  arisen,"  says  our 
common  master,  Giuseppi  Sergi,  "a  renovation  of  our  methods  of 
education  and  instruction;  and  whoever  enrolls  himself  under  this 
standard,  is  fighting  for  the  regeneration  of  man." 

Enrico  Morselli  and  Scientific  Philosophy. — Among  the  names 
of  Italian  scientists  that  must  be  called  to  mind,  in  discussing  the 
modern  developments  of  anthropology,  a  special  lustre  attaches  to 
that  of  Enrico  Morselli,  who  has  earned  the  right  to  call  himself 
the  critic,  or  rather,  the  philosopher  of  anthropology.  Notwith- 
standing that  he  has  made  his  name  famous  in  the  vast  field  of 
psychiatry,  this  distinguished  Genoese  practitioner  has  found 
time  to  assimilate  the  most  diverse  branches  of  science  and  the 
most  widely  separated  avenues  of  thought,  qualifying  himself 
as  a  critic,  and  systematising  experimental  science  on  the  lines  of 
scientific  philosophy. 

His  great  work,  General  Anthropology,  is  developed  on  synthetic 
lines,  embracing  in  a  single  scientific  system  all  the  acquired 
knowledge  of  the  past  two  centuries,  and  may  rightfully  be  called 
the  first  treatise  on  philosophic  anthropology.  While  the  experi- 
mental sciences,  by  collecting  and  recording  separate  phenomena, 
were  gradually  preparing,  throughout  the  nineteenth  century, 
a  great  mass  of  analytical  material,  chosen  blindly  and  without 
form,  they  apparently  engendered  a  new  trend  of  thought  posi- 
tively hostile  to  philosophy:  the  odium  antiphilosophicum,  as 
Morselli  calls  it.  And  conversely,  the  speculative  positivism  of 
Ardigo  remained  throughout  its  development  a  stranger  to  the 
immediate  sources  of  experimental  research,  and  adhered  strictly 
to  the  field  of  pure  philosophy.  It  remained  for  Morselli  to  per- 
ceive that  the  scientific  material  prepared  by  experimental  science 
was  in  reality  philosophical  material,  for  which  it  was  only  neces- 
sary to  prepare  instruments  and  means  in  order  to  systematise 
it  and  lead  it  into  the  proper  channels  for  the  construction  of  a 
scientific  philosophy. 

Throughout  the  whole  period  of  his  intellectual  activity, 
Morselli  sought  to  unite  experimental  science  and  philosophy,  by 
taking  his  content  from  the  former  and  his  form  from  the  latter. 
To  gather  and  catalogue  bare  facts  could  not  be  the  scope  of 
science;  such  labour  could  result  only  in  sterilising  the  mind. 
"The  human  mind,"  says  Morselli,  "does  not  stop  at  the  objective 
study  of  a  phenomenon  and  its  laws;  it  wants  also  to  fathom  their 


22  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

nature;  the  how  does  not  content  it,  but  it  must  also  have  the 
wherefore.''  It  must  mount  from  facts  to  synthesis,  constantly 
achieving  a  new  and  fuller  understanding.  But  what  determines 
the  content  of  philosophy  is  not  speculative  thought,  but  facts 
that  have  been  collected  objectively.  Such  is  the  view  of  Enrico 
Morselli,  expressed  in  the  introduction  to  his  Review  of  Scientific 
Philosophy:  "We  think  the  moment  has  come  for  professional 
philosophers  to  allow  themselves  to  be  convinced  that  the  progress 
of  physical  and  biological  sciences  has  profoundly  changed  the 
tendencies  of  philosophy;  so  that  it  is  no  longer  an  assemblage  of 
speculative  systems,  but  rather  the  synthesis  of  partial  scientific 
doctrines,  the  expression  of  the  highest  general  truths,  derived 
solely  and  immediately  from  the  study  of  facts.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  hope  also  that  in  every  student  of  the  separate  sciences, 
whether  pure  or  applied,  the  intimate  conviction  will  take  root 
that  no  science  which  applies  the  method  of  observation  and 
experiment  to  the  particular  class  of  phenomena  which  form  its 
subject,  can  call  itself  fully  developed  so  long  as  it  is  limited  to  the 
collection  and  classification  of  facts.  Scientific  dilettantism  of 
this  sort  must  end  by  sterilising  the  human  mind,  whose  natural 
tendency  is  to  advance  from  observed  phenomena  by  successive 
stages  to  the  investigation  of  their  partial  laws,  and  from  these 
to  the  research  of  more  and  more  general  truths.  But  philosophy, 
thus  understood,  can  never  confine  itself  within  the  dogmatism 
of  a  system,  but  rather  will  leave  the  individual  mind  free  to 
make  constant  new  concessions,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  truth. 

"The  human  mind  is  condemned  to  search  forever,  and  perhaps 
never  to  find,  the  ultimate  solution  to  the  eternal  problem  which 
it  offers  to  itself;  accordingly,  let  it  keep  itself  at  liberty  to  accept 
to-day  as  probable,  a  solution  which  further  researches  or  newly 
discovered  facts  will  compel  it  to  reject  to-morrow  in  favor  of 
another.  We  must  admit  that  in  philosophic  concepts  there  is  a 
constant  evolution,  or  rather  natural  selection,  thanks  to  which 
the  strongest  concepts,  those  best  constituted,  those  that  are 
fitted  to  make  use  of  scientific  discoveries  with  the  broadest 
liberality,  are  predisposed  to  prove  victorious  or  at  least  to  hold 
their  own  for  a  long  time  in  the  struggle."* 

It  is  this  liberty  that  makes  it  possible  for  us  to  pursue  experi- 

*  From  a  study  by  Prof.  E.  Troilo,  Enrico  Morselli  as  a  Philosopher.     In  the  volume  by 
MOBSEMJ,  MILAN:  VALLARDI,  1906. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

mental  investigations,  without  fear  that  our  brains  may  become 
sterile.  And  by  liberty  we  mean  the  readiness  to  accept  new 
concepts  whenever  experience  proves  to  us  that  they  are  better 
and  closer  to  the  truth  which  we  are  seeking.  Even  though  the 
absolute  truth  were  never  reached,  the  experimental  method  is 
the  path  most  likely  to  lead  us  toward  it  step  by  step. 

Accordingly,  what  we  should  demand  of  investigators  is  not  a 
creed,  a  philosophic  system,  but  "the  objective  method  in  their 
researches  and  in  the  sources  of  their  inductions."  For  this  is  the 
way  to  train  the  workers  and  philosophers  of  experimental  science. 

And  the  same  lines  must  serve  us  for  building  up  a  philoso- 
phy capable  of  shaping  a  regenerated  method  of  pedagogy. 

THE  METHOD 

The  determining  factor  in  anthropology  is  the  same  that 
determines  all  experimental  science:  the  method.  A  well-defined 
method  in  natural  science  applied  to  the  study  of  living  man 
offers  us  the  scientific  content,  which  we  are  in  the  course  of 
seeking. 

The  content  bursts  upon  us  as  a  surprise,  as  the  result  of 
applying  the  method,  by  means  of  which  we  make  advances  in  the 
investigation  of  truth. 

Whenever  a  science  prescribes  for  itself,  not  a  content  but  a 
method  of  experimenting,  it  is  for  that  reason  called  an  experi- 
mental science. 

It  is  not  easy  for  those  who  come  fresh  from  the  pursuit  of 
philosophic  studies  to  adapt  themselves  to  this  order  of  ideas. 
The  philosopher,  the  historian,  the  man  of  letters  prepare  them- 
selves by  assimilating  the  content  of  one  particular  branch  of 
learning;  and  thereby  they  define  the  boundaries  of  their  indi- 
vidual knowledge  and  close  the  circle  of  their  individual  thought, 
however  vast  that  circle  may  be. 

Indeed,  the  elaboration  of  human  thought,  the  series  of  historic 
deeds,  the  accumulated  mass  of  literature,  may  offer  immense 
fields ;  but  after  the  student  has  little  by  little  assimilated  them,  he 
cannot  do  otherwise  than  contain  them  within  him  precisely  as 
they  are.  Their  extent  is  limited  by  the  centuries  that  cover  the 
history  of  civilised  man,  and  it  is  invariable,  since  it  exists  as  a 
work  accomplished  by  man. 


24  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Experimental  science  is  of  an  entirely  different  sort.  We  must 
look  upon  it  as  a  means  of  investigation  into  the  field  of  the  infinite 
and  the  unknown.  If  we  wish  to  compare  it  to  some  branch  of 
learning  that  is  universally  familiar,  we  may  say  that  an  experi- 
mental science  is  similar  to  learning  to  read.  When  as  children  we 
•  learn  to  read,  we  may,  to  be  sure,  estimate  the  effort  that  it  costs 
us  to  master  a  mechanical  device;  but  such  a  mechanical  device 
is  a  means,  it  is  a  magic  key  that  will  unlock  the  secrets  of 
wisdom,  multiply  our  power  to  share  the  thoughts  of  our  con- 
temporaries, and  render  us  dexterous  in  despatching  the  practical 
affairs  of  life. 

Thus  considered,  reading  is  a  branch  of  learning  that  has  no 
prescribed  limits. 

It  is  our  duty  to  learn  to  read  the  truth,  in  the  book  of  nature; 

I.  by  collecting  separate  facts,  according  to  the  objective  method; 

II.  by  proceeding  methodically  from  analysis  to  synthesis.     The 
subject  of  our  research  is  the  individual  human  being. 

1.  The  Objective  Collecting  of  Single  Facts. — In  the  gathering  of 
data,  our  science  makes  use  of  two  means  of  investigation,  as  we 
have  already  seen :  observation  or  anthroposcopy ;  and  measurement 
or  anthropometry.  In  order  to  take  measurements,  we  must  know 
the  special  anthropometric  instruments  and  how  to  use  them;  and 
in  making  observations,  we  must  treat  ourselves  as  instruments, 
that  is,  we  must  divest  ourselves  of  our  own  personality,  of  every 
preconception,  in  order  to  become  capable  of  recording  the  real 
facts  objectively.  For  since  our  purpose  is  to  gather  our  facts  from 
nature  and  await  her  revelations,  if  we  allowed  ourselves  to  have 
scientific  preconceptions,  we  might  distort  the  truth.  Here  is 
the  point  which  distinguishes  experimental  science  from  a  specula- 
tive science;  in  the  former,  we  must  banish  thought,  in  the  latter 
we  must  build  by  means  of  thought.  Accordingly  at  the  moment 
when  we  are  collecting  our  data,  we  must  possess  no  other  capacity 
than  that  of  knowing  how  to  collect  them  with  extreme  exactness 
and  objectivity. 

Accordingly  we  need  a  method  and  a  mental  preparation,  that 
is,  a  training  which  will  accustom  us  to  divest  ourselves  of  our 
own  personalities,  in  order  to  become  simple  instruments  of  investi- 
gation. For  instance,  if  it  were  a  question  of  measuring  the  heads 
of  illiterate  children  and  of  other  children  of  the  same  age,  who 
are  attending  school,  in  order  to  learn  whether  the  heads  of 


INTRODUCTION  25 

educated  children  show  greater  development,  we  need  not  only  to 
know  how  to  use  the  >millimetric  scale  and  the  cranial  calipers 
which  are  the  instruments  adapted  to  this  purpose;  we  need  not 
only  to  know  the  anatomical  points  at  which  the  instruments  must 
be  applied  in  the  manner  established  by  the  accepted  method;  but 
we  need  in  addition  to  be  unaware,  while  taking  the  measurements, 
whether  the  child  before  us  at  a  given  moment  is  educated  or  illit- 
erate because  the  preconception  might  work  upon  us  by  sugges- 
tion and  thus  alter  the  result.  Or  again,  to  take  what  in  a  certain 
sense  is  an  opposite  case,  a,nd  nevertheless  analogous,  we  may 
undertake  a  research  into  some  absolutely  unknown  question,  as  for 
instance,  what  are  the  psychic  characteristics  of  children  whose 
development  has  kept  fairly  close  to  the  normal  average,  and  of 
those  whose  anthropological  measurements  diverge  notably  from 
the  average:  in  such  a  case  we  ought  to  measure  all  the  children, 
make  the  required  psychological  tests  separately,  and  then  compare 
the  results  of  the  two  investigations. 

A  woman  student  in  my  course,  last  year,  undertook  precisely  this 
sort  of  investigation,  namely,  to  find  out  what  was  the  standing  in 
school  of  children  who  represent  the  normal  average  anthropo- 
logical type,  that  is  to  say,  those  whose  physical  development  had 
been  all  that  was  to  be  desired :  and  she  found  that  normal  children 
are  vivacious  (happy),  very  intelligent,  but  negligent;  and  conse- 
quently their  number  never  includes  the  heads  of  the  classes,  the 
winners  of  prizes. 

In  addition  to  gathering  anthropological  data,  which  requires  a 
special  technique  of  research,  we  need  to  know  how  to  proceed  'to 
interpret  them. 

We  are  no  longer  at  the  outset  of  our  observations.  No  sooner 
was  the  method  established,  than  there  were  a  multitude  of  students 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  capable  of  objective  research,  that  is  to 
say,  of  anthropological  investigations.  The  sum  total  of  all 
these  researches  forms  a  scientific  patrimony,  which  needs  to  be 
known  to  us,  in  order  that  our  own  conclusions  may  serve  to 
complete  those  of  other  investigators,  who  have  preceded  us,  and 
thus  form  a  contribution  to  science. 

In  other  words,  there  have  already  been  certain  principles  es- 
tablished and  certain  laws  discovered,  on  an  experimental  basis; 
and  all  this  forms  a  true  and  fitting  content  of  our  science.  It  will 
serve  to  guide  us  in  our  researches,  and  to  furnish  us  with  a  stand- 


26  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

ard  of  comparison  for  our  own  conclusions.  Thus,  for  example, 
when  we  have  measured  the  stature  of  a  boy  of  ten,  we  have  un- 
doubtedly gathered  an  individual  anthropological  fact;  but  in  order 
to  interpret  it,  we  must  know  what  is  the  average  stature  of  boys 
of  ten;  and  the  average  will  be  found  established  by  previous 
investigators,  who  have  obtained  it  from  actuality,  by  applying 
the  well-known  method  of  measuring  the  stature,  to  a  great 
number  of  individuals  of  a  specified  race,  sex,  and  age,  and  by 
obtaining  an  average  on  the  basis  of  such  research. 

Accordingly,  we  ought  to  profit  from  the  researches  of  others, 
whenever  they  have  been  received,  as  noteworthy,  into  the  litera- 
ture of  science.  Nevertheless,  the  patrimony  which  science 
places  at  our  disposition  must  never  be  considered  as  anything 
more  than  a  guide,  an  expression  of  universal  collaboration,  in 
accordance  with  a  uniform  method.  We  must  never  jurare  in 
verba  magistri,  never  accept  any  master  as  infallible :  we  are  always 
at  liberty  to  repeat  any  research  already  made,  in  order  to  verify 
it ;  and  this  form  of  investigation  is  part  of  the  established  method 
of  experimental  science.  One  fundamental  principle  must  be 
clearly  understood;  that  we  can  never  become  anthropologists 
merely  by  reading  all  the  existing  literature  of  anthropology, 
including  the  voluminous  works  on  kindred  studies  and  the  in- 
numerable periodicals;  we  shall  become  anthropologists  only  at 
the  moment  when,  having  mastered  the  method,  we  become 
investigators  of  living  human  individuals. 

We  must,  in  short,  be  producers,  or  nothing  at  all;  assimilation 
is'  useless.  For  example,  let  us  suppose  that  a  certain  teacher  has 
studied  anthropology  in  books:  if,  after  that,  he  is  incapable  of 
making  practical  observations  upon  his  own  pupils,  to  what  end 
does  his  theoretical  knowledge  serve  him?  It  is  evident  that 
theoretic  study  can  have  no  other  purpose  than  to  guide  us  in  the 
interpretation  of  data  gathered  directly  from  nature. 

Our  only  book  should  be  the  living  individual;  all  the  rest 
taken  together  form  only  the  necessary  means  for  reading  it. 

2.  The  Passage  from  Analysis  to  Synthesis. — Assuming  that  we 
have  learned  how  to  gather  anthropological  data  with  a  rigorously 
exact  technique,  and  that  we  possess  a  theoretic  knowledge  and 
tables  of  comparative  data:  all  this  together  does  not  suffice  to 
qualify  us  as  interpreters  of  nature.  The  marvellous  reading  of 
this  amazing  book  demands  on  our  part  still  other  forms  of  prepara- 


INTRODUCTION  27 

tion.  In  gathering  the  separate  data,  it  may  be  said  that  we  have 
learned  how  to  spell,  but  not  yet  how  to  read  and  interpret  the 
sense.  The  reading  must  be  accomplished  with  broad,  sweeping 
glances,  and  must  enable  us  to  penetrate  in  thought  into  the  very 
synthesis  of  life.  And  it  is  the  simple  truth  that  life  manifests 
itself  through  the  living  individual,  and  in  no  other  way.  But 
through  these  means  it  reveals  certain  general  properties,  certain 
laws  that  will  guide  us  in  grouping  the  living  individuals  according 
to  their  common  properties;  it  is  necessary  to  know  them,  in  order 
to  interpret  individual  differences  dependent  upon  race,  age,  and 
sex,  and  upon  variations  due  to  the  effort  of  adaptation  to  environ- 
ment, or  to  pathological  or  degenerative  causes.  That  is  to  say, 
certain  general  principles  exist,  which  serve  to  make  us  interpreters 
of  the  meaning,  when  we  read  in  the  book  of  life. 

This  is  the  loftiest  part  of  our  work,  carrying  us  above  and  be- 
yond the  individual,  and  bringing  us  in  contact  with  the  very 
fountain-heads  of  life,  almost  as  though  it  were  granted  us  to 
materialise  the  unknowable.  In  this  way  we  may  rise  from  the 
arid  and  fatiguing  gathering  of  analytical  data,  toward  conceptions 
of  noble  grandeur,  toward  a  positive  philosophy  of  life;  and  un- 
veil certain  secrets  of  existence,  that  will  teach  us  the  moral  norms 
of  life. 

Because,  unquestionably,  we  are  immoral,  when  we  disobey  the 
laws  of  life ;  for  the  triumphant  rule  of  life  throughout  the  universe 
is  what  constitutes  our  conception  of  beauty  and  goodness  and 
truth — in  short,  of  divinity. 

The  technical  method  of  proceeding  toward  synthesis,  we  may 
find  well  defined  in  biology :  the  data  gathered  by  measurement  can 
be  grouped  according  to  the  statistical  method,  be  represented 
graphically  and  calculated  by  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
biology:  to-day,  indeed,  biometry  and  biostatistics  tend  to  assume 
so  vast  a  development  as  to  give  promise  of  forming  independent 
sciences. 

The  method  in  biology,  considered  as  a  whole,  may  be  compared 
to  the  microscope  and  telescope,  which  are  instruments,  and  yet 
enable  us  to  rise  above  and  beyond  our  own  natural  powers  and 
come  into  contact  with  the  two  extremes  of  infinity;  the  infinitely 
little  and  the  infinitely  large. 

Objections  and  Defences. — One  of  the  objections  made  to  peda- 
gogical anthropology  is  that  it  has  not  yet  a  completely  defined  con- 


28  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tent,  on  which  to  base  an  organic  system  of  instruction  and  reliable 
general  rules. 

It  is  the  method  alone  that  enables  us  to  be  eloquent  in  defence 
of  pedagogic  anthropology,  against  such  an  accusation.  For  the 
accusation  itself  is  the  embodiment  of  a  conception  of  a  method 
differing  widely  from  our  own :  it  is  the  accusation  made  by  specula- 
tive science,  which,  resting  on  the  basis  of  a  content,  refuses  to 
acknowledge  a  science  that  is  still  lacking  and  incomplete  in  its 
content,  because  it  is  unable  to  conceive  that  a  science  may  be 
essentially  summed  up  in  its  method,  which  makes  it  a  means  of 
revelation. 

How  could  we  conceive  of  the  content  of  pedagogic  anthropology 
otherwise  than  as  something  to  be  derived  by  the  experimental 
method  from  the  observation  of  school-children?  And  where  could 
we  conceive  of  a  possible  laboratory  for  such  a  science,  if  not  in  the 
school  itself?  The  content  will  be  determined  little  by  little,  by 
the  application  of  the  anthropological  study  to  school-children  in 
the  school,  and  never  in  any  other  manner. 

Now,  if  it  were  necessary  to  await  the  completion  of  a  content 
before  proceeding  to  any  practical  application,  where  could  we 
hope  to  get  this  content  from — especially  since  we  look  for  no  help 
either  from  speculative  philosophy  or  divine  revelation? 

When  a  method  is  applied  to  any  positive  science,  it  results  in 
giving  that  science  a  new  direction,  that  is  to  say,  a  new  avenue  of 
progress:  And  it  is  precisely  in  the  course  of  advance  along  that 
avenue  that  the  content  of  the  science  is  formed:  but  if  we  never 
made  the  advance,  the  science  would  never  take  its  start.  Thus, 
for  example,  when  the  microscope  revealed  to  medicine  the  existence 
of  micro-organisms,  and  bacteriology  arose  as  the  positive  study 
of  epidemiology,  it  altered  the  whole  procedure  in  the  cure  and  pro- 
phylaxis of  infective  maladies.  Prior  to  this  epoch  people  believed 
that  an  epidemic  was  a  scourge  sent  by  divine  wrath  upon  sinners; 
or  else  they  imagined  it  was  a  miasma  transported  by  the  wind, 
which  groves  and  eucalyptus  trees  might  check;  or  they  pictured  the 
ground  ejecting  miasmatic  poisons  through  its  pores: — and  human- 
ity sought  in  vain  to  protect  itself  with  bare-foot  processions  and 
religious  ceremonies,  attended  by  jostling  throngs  and  cruel  flagel- 
lation; or  else  they  betook  themselves  to  the  shade  of  eucalyptus 
trees,  in  the  midst  of  malarial  lowlands.  Entire  cities  were  de- 
stroyed by  pestilence,  and  malarial  districts  remained  uncultured 


INTRODUCTION  29 

deserts,  because  entire  populations,  in  the  brave  effort  to  perform 
their  work,  were  destroyed  by  successive  impoverishment  of  the 
blood. 

It  is  bacteriology  that  has  put  to  flight  this  darkness  of  ignorance 
that  was  the  herald  of  death,  and  has  created  the  modern  condi- 
tions of  environment,  which,  by  a  multitude  of  means,  defend 
the  individual  and  the  nation  from  infective  diseases;  so  that  to- 
day civilised  society  may  be  said  to  be  advancing  toward  a  triumph 
over  death. 

But  the  microbes  have  not  all  of  them  been  discovered ;  bacteri- 
ology and  general  pathology  are  still  very  far  from  having  com- 
pleted their  content.  If  we  had  been  obliged  to  wait  for  such  com- 
pletion, we  should  still  be  living  quite  literally  in  the  midst  of 
mediaeval  epidemics;  or,  to  state  the  case  better,  where  in  the 
world  would  the  science  of  medicine  ever  have  attained  its  new 
content?  For  it  has  been  building  it  up,  little  by  little,  by  directing 
medicine  upon  a  new  path.  It  was  the  introduction  of  this  new 
method  of  investigating  the  patient  and  his  environment  that 
experimentally  reaped  the  fruit  of  new  etiological  discoveries,  and 
new  means  of  defence :  the  microscope  became  perfected  because  it 
came  into  universal  use  in  practice;  bacterial  cultures  owe  their 
perfectionment  to  the  fact  that  they  became  the  common  means 
of  investigation  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosis;  just  as  tests  in  clinical 
chemistry  have  become  perfected  through  practical  use.  Without 
which,  who  would  ever  have  perfected  the  microscope,  or  the 
science  of  bacteriology?  In  a  word,  whence  are  we  to  get  the 
content  of  any  positive  science,  if  not  from  practical  application? 

A  direction  and  an  applied  method  represent  a  triumph  of 
progress;  and  in  progress,  a  content  cannot  have  defined  limits.  We 
do  not  know  its  goal;  we  know  only  that  at  the  moment  when  it 
finds  its  goal,  it  will  cease  to  be  progress. 

It  is  many  years  since  medicine  abandoned  the  speculative 
course,  and  we  see  it  to-day  hourly  enriching  itself  with  new 
truths;  its  triumphal  march  is  never  checked,  and  it  moves 
onward  toward  the  invasion  of  future  centuries.  In  the  wake 
of  its  progress,  that  frightful  phenomenon  which  we  call  mortality 
tends  to  fall  steadily  to  a  lower  level;  giving  rise  to  the  hope  that 
through  future  progress  it  will  cease  to  be  the  mysterious,  menacing 
fate,  ever  watchful  and  ready  to  sever  the  invisible  threads  of 
human  life.  These  threads  are  to-day  revealing  themselves  as 


30  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  resistant  fibres  of  a  fabric;  because,  humanity  by  engaging 
collectively  in  the  audacious  search  after  truth,  and  by  thus  pro- 
tecting the  interests  of  each  individual  through  the  common  in- 
terests, has  succeeded  in  offering  a  powerful  resistance  to  the 
mysterious  sheers. 

Accordingly,  we  may  say  that  the  substitution  to-day  of  an 
anthropological  development  of  pedagogy,  in  the  place  of  a  purely 
philosophical  and  speculative  trend,  does  not  offer  it  merely  an 
additional  content,  an  auxiliary  to  all  the  other  forms  of  teaching 
on  which  it  now  comfortably  reposes;  but  it  opens  up  new  avenues, 
fruitful  in  truth  and  in  life;  and  as  it  advances  along  these  avenues, 
regenerated  from  its  very  foundations  upward,  it  may  be  that 
pedagogy  is  destined  to  solve  the  great  problem  of  human 
redemption. 

THE  METHOD  TO  BE  FOLLOWED  IN  THESE  LECTURES 

Lastly,  just  one  more  word  regarding  the  didactic  method  that 
I  intend  to  follow,  in  delivering  this  course  of  lectures.  From  the 
purpose  already  stated,  it  follows  that  this  Course  in  Anthropology 
must  be  eminently  practical.  Of  the  three  weekly  lectures,  only 
one  will  be  theoretical;  that  is  to  say,  only  one  in  which  I  shall 
expound  the  content  of  our  science;  a  second  lecture  will  treat  of 
the  technique  of  the  method;  that  is  to  say,  I  shall  devote  it  to 
describing  the  practical  way  of  gathering  anthropological  data, 
and  how  we  must  study  them  and  re-group  them  in  order  to 
extract  their  laws;  and  finally,  the  third  lecture  will  be  practical 
and  clinical;  I  shall  devote  it  to  the  collection  of  anthropological 
data  from  human  subjects,  and  little  by  little  I  shall  try  to  work 
toward  the  individual  study  of  pupils,  until  we  reach  the  compila- 
tion of  biographic  charts.  At  the  lectures  of  the  third  type,  we 
shall  have  present  subjects  who  will  be,  for  the  most  part,  normal, 
but  some  of  them  will  be  abnormal,  and  all  will  be  drawn  from  the 
elementary  schools  of  Rome. 

Finally,  in  further  illustration  of  our  course,  we  shall  make 
excursions,  visiting  certain  schools  that  offer  some  particular  in- 
terest from  our  scientific  point  of  view;  to  the  end  that  we  may 
supply  what  is  lacking  and  what  is  needed  to  complete  a  University 
Course  in  Scientific  Pedagogy,  namely  a  "Pedagogical  Clinic," 
where  pupils  of  the  widest  variety  of  types  might  be  educated, 


INTRODUCTION  31 

and  where  it  might  be  possible  to  lay  practical  foundations  of  a 
far-reaching  reform  in  our  schools. 

Accordingly,  I  shall  repeat  myself  three  times,  in  these  lectures; 
first,  by  setting  forth  the  scientific  content,  secondly,  by  expound- 
ing the  methods  of  investigation,  and  thirdly,  by  applying  in  prac- 
tice what  I  have  already  taught  in  theory.  The  didactic  method 
of  repeating  the  same  instruction  under  different  forms,  is  also  a 
feature  of  scientific  pedagogy,  because  it  represents  the  method 
by  which  positive  science  must  be  taught  and  acquired;  and 
furthermore,  it  is  the  method  that  deserves  to  be  applied  wherever 
instruction  of  any  sort  is  to  be  given. 

Hitherto,  we  have  not  learned  how  to  study;  we  know  only, 
or  at  least  the  majority  of  us  do,  how  to  absorb  the  contents  of 
books.  The  only  true  student  is  the  scientist,  who  knows  how  to 
advance  slowly;  we  educators  on  the  contrary  plunge  in  a  dizzy, 
headlong  rush,  through  all  acquirable  knowledge.  To  study  is  to 
look  steadily,  to  stand  still,  to  assimilate  and  to  wait.  We  should 
study  for  the  sake  of  creating,  since  the  whole  object  of  taking 
is  to  be  able  to  give  again;  but  in  this  giving  and  taking  we  ought 
not  to  be  mere  instruments,  like  high-pressure  suction  pumps;  in 
work  of  this  sort  we  ought  to  be  creators,  and  when  we  give  back, 
to  add  that  part  which  has  been  born  and  developed  within  us  from 
what  we  acquired.  It  is  wise  to  give  our  acquired  knowledge  time 
not  only  to  be  assimilated  but  also  to  develop  freely  in  that  fertile 
psychic  ground  that  constitutes  our  innermost  personality.  In 
other  words :  assimilate  by  every  possible  means,  and  then  wait. 

In  order  to  start  from  a  point  of  established  knowledge,  let  us 
consider  what  is  meant  by  meditation:  to  meditate  means  to  isolate 
one's  thoughts  within  the  limits  of  some  definite  subject,  and  wait 
to  see  what  that  subject  of  its  own  accord  may  reveal  to  us,  in  the 
course  of  assimilation.  The  Jesuits  succeeded  in  winning  souls 
merely  by  encouraging  the  people  to  meditate;  meditation  opened 
up  an  unsuspected  inner  world,  which  fascinated  the  type  of  person 
accustomed  to  flit  lightly  in  thought  across  a  multitude  of  diverse 
matters;  and  under  the  spell  of  such  fascination,  their  consciences 
could  attribute  to  nothing  less  than  some  occult  power,  what  was 
really  the  application  of  a  great  pedagogic  principle. 

There  is  a  great  difference  between  reading  and  meditating:  we 
may  read  a  voluminous  novel  in  a  single  night;  we  may  meditate 
upon  a  verse  of  Scripture  for  an  entire  hour.  Anyone  who  reads 


32       PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

a  novel  in  a  night  undoubtedly  squanders  his  physical  powers,  like 
a  wind  that  passes  over  arid  ground;  but  one  who  meditates  assimi- 
lates in  a  special  manner  that  surprises  the  meditator  himself, 
because  he  feels  something  unforeseen  coming  to  life  within  him, 
just  as  though  a  seed  had  been  planted  in  fertile  soil  and,  while 
remaining  motionless,  had  begun  to  germinate.  Accordingly,  the 
act  of  holding  acquired  knowledge  within  ourselves  for  a  period  of 
time  results  in  self-development;  superficial  learning,  on  the  con- 
trary, means  the  exhaustion  of  our  personal  resources.  We  become 
steadily  more  exhausted  and  more  inefficient,  through  too  much 
study;  and  instead,  we  ought  to  become  all  the  time  more  flourish- 
ing and  more  robust,  if  we  studied  in  the  proper  way:  and  this  is 
because  we  squander  our  psychic  powers,  instead  of  acquiring  new 
energy.  The  consequence  of  this  mistaken  method  is  that  we 
rapidly  forget  all  that  we  have  learned.  Everything  is  acquired 
at  the  cost  of  effort;  what  we  need  is  to  labor  patiently,  in  order 
to  acquire  in  the  real  sense.  To-day  it  is  the  fashion  to  study  in 
order  to  enter  upon  that  particular  business  or  profession  that  is 
destined  to  be  our  life's  work;  what  we  ought  to  do  instead,  is  to 
devote  our  energies  to  the  conquest  of  thought  and  the  elevation 
of  the  spirit. 

The  didactic  method  that  I  am  trying  to  illustrate  is  not  a  new 
one;  it  dates  back  to  the  first  precursors  of  scientific  pedagogy. 
Half  a  century  ago,  a  marvellous  work  on  pedagogy,  based  on 
similar  principles,  was  issued  from  the  press;  it  was  the  method 
elaborated  by  Seguin,  based  on  thirty  years  of  practical  experi- 
ence in  the  education  of  idiotic  children.  Such  a  system  cannot 
be  foreign  to  the  interests  of  schools  intended  for  average,  normal 
children,  because  it  is  not  a  specialised  method,  like  that  for  deaf- 
mutes  or  for  the  blind.  Being  designed  for  the  mentally  deficient, 
this  method  applies  to  any  class  of  undeveloped  beings  who  are 
striving  to  grow  bigger;  we  may  even  apply  it  to  ourselves,  and 
thereby  increase  our  own  mental  stature.  In  short,  pedagogically 
considered,  it  is  a  rational  method. 

Perhaps  it  is  already  familiar  to  a  good  many  of  you;  but  an 
example  or  two  will  serve  to  illustrate  it.  Let  us  suppose  that  we 
have  to  impart  a  lesson  in  history  to  a  deficient  pupil:  first  of  all, 
a  picture  is  shown  him,  representing  an  historic  fact;  then  the 
same  fact  will  be  shown  him  in  as  many  different  ways  as  possible- 
through  the  cinematograph,  for  example.  Finally  it  will  be  acted 


INTRODUCTION  33 

on  the  stage;  and  in  this  case,  it  is  the  children  themselves  who 
prepare  the  setting  and  endeavor,  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  to 
impersonate  the  historic  figures.  Now,  it  is  precisely  at  the 
moment  when  they  are  reproducing  the  scene  that  these  children 
feel  it,  and  it  is  only  then  that  they  learn.  But  this  is  not  peculiar 
to  deficient  children:  the  same  path  is  the  common  path  for  all;  it 
is  necessary  for  all  of  us  to  assimilate  mentally  and  to  feel,  before 
we  can  say:  I  have  learned.  If  there  is  a  latent  tendency  in  the 
mind  of  a  normal  child  to  love  historic  happenings,  then  he  will 
love  them,  and  thus  reveal  to  his  teacher  one  of  his  intimate  and 
secret  tendencies ;  in  other  words,  we  shall  have  developed  a  taste, 
of  which  the  hidden  germs  already  existed.  Perhaps  it  was  in  some 
such  way  that  Sabatier  succeeded  in  realising  the  environment  and 
the  life  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

Let  us  suppose,  again,  that  we  have  to  teach  a  child  what  is 
meant,  in  geography,  by  a  mountain,  a  lake,  or  an  island.  Accord- 
ing to  Seguin's  method,  we  should  take  the  child  out  into  the 
garden,  and  make  him  construct  a  miniature  mountain  with 
earth,  a  lake  with  water,  etc.,  than  make  him  trace  their  geograph- 
ical outline  with  chalk,  then  make  him  paint  them  in  oils  or  water- 
colours,  so  that  in  the  end  he  will  have,  as  the  result  of  his  handi- 
work, a  little  monument,  so  to  speak,  of  the  acquired  lesson.  It  is 
only  after  a  child  has  worked  that  he  begins  to  learn  and  to  be  in- 
terested. Does  not  everyone  know  that,  as  between  the  one  who 
receives,  and  the  one  who  confers  a  favor,  it  is  the  latter  who 
cares  the  more,  because  he  has  done  something?  The  next  step 
is  to  take  the  pupil  to  the  top  of  some  hill,  so  that  he  may  see  with 
his  own  eyes  the  things  that  we  have  taught  him  in  the  garden 
and  through  the  medium  of  work;  and  in  the  silent  contemplation 
of  nature,  it  may  happen  that  a  normal  child  will  hear  the  call  of 
her  mysterious  voice,  and  reveal  a  dormant  tendency  to  become 
some  day,  perhaps,  a  geographer,  or  an  explorer,  like  the  Duke  of 
the  Abruzzi;  or  perhaps  he  will  feel  that  lure  of  nature  which, 
some  day  or  other,  when  he  reaches  maturity,  will  lead  him  to 
investigate  the  secrets  of  the  earth  and  of  meteorological  phenom- 
ena, even  to  the  point  of  such  heroic  sacrifice  as  was  exemplified 
by  Professor  Matteucci,  during  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius. 

Repeating  the  same  things  over  and  over,  keeping  the  mind 
fixed  upon  the  selfsame  lesson,  teaching  how  to  reproduce  objects 
by  the  work  of  the  hands,  bringing  the  pupil  into  direct  contact 


34  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

with  the  object  that  he  is  desired  to  study,  such  is  the  true  way  to 
enable  him  to  learn.  The  man  who  has  been  educated  according 
to  this  method  has  not  fruitlessly  expended  his  energy  in  fatiguing 
study;  he  has  preserved  his  forces  unimpaired;  indeed,  if  anything, 
they  are  all  the  sounder  and  more  flourishing.  By  such  a  system 
of  education,  we  launch  upon  the  world  a  sturdy  generation, 
imbued  with  that  living  energy,  that  constitutes  the  one  and  only 
mainspring  that  really  makes  the  world  move. 

Accordingly  this  is  the  method  that  we  shall  follow:  studying, 
repeating,  working  experimentally:  the  subject  of  our  study  is 
humanity;  our  pupose  is  to  become  teachers.  Now,  what  really 
makes  a  teacher  is  love  for  the  human  child;  for  it  is  love  that 
transforms  the  social  duty  of  the  educator  into  the  higher  con- 
sciousness of  a  mission. 

THE  LIMITS  OF  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

In  concluding  this  preamble,  it  may  be  well  to  define  the  form 
of  study  and  the  purposes  of  pedagogical  anthropology;  in  order 
to  distinguish  it  clearly  from  general  anthropology  and  from  the 
allied  branches  of  applied  anthropology  (criminal  and  medical 
anthropology). 

Pedagogical  anthropology,  like  all  the  other  branches  of  anthro- 
pology, studies  man  from  the  naturalistic  point  of  view ;  but,  unlike 
general  anthropology,  it  does  not  concern  itself  with  the  philo- 
sophic problems  related  to  it,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  origin  of 
man,  the  theories  of  monism  or  polygenism,  of  emigration,  and 
classification  according  to  race; problems  which,  as  everyone  knows, 
are  difficult  of  solution,  and  which  constitute  the  pivot  on  which 
biological  anthropology  revolves.  Thus,  for  example,  bacteri- 
ology has  its  origin  in  biology,  in  so  far  as  it  has  certain  orders  of 
living  organisms  for  the  subject  of  its  research;  but  it  well  nigh 
ignores  the  problems  of  biological  philosophy  associated  with 
them,  such  as  the  origin  of  living  matter  and  of  the  primitive  cell; 
the  fixity  or  variability  of  monocellular  species;  the  possibility 
of  life  in  the  isolated  nucleus  (the  microbe),  or  in  the  isolated 
protoplasm  (the  monera),  but  it  devotes  itself  to  the  direct  study 
of  microscopic  organisms,  both  in  themselves  alone  and  in  their 
influence  upon  their  environment;  in  short,  bacteriology  has  for 
its  purpose  the  acquirement  of  that  practical  knowledge  necessary 


INTRODUCTION  35 

for  a  successful  campaign  against  the  causes  of  infective  maladies, 
and  for  rendering  infected  districts  sanitary.  In  much  the  same 
way,  pedagogical  anthropology,  considered  as  a  form  of  study, 
departs  from  general  anthropology.  It  studies  man  from  two 
different  points  of  view:  his  development  (ontogenesis),  and  his 
variations. 

Since  many  causes  concur  in  producing  variations  in  the  indi- 
vidual during  his  development  (social  causes,  pathological  causes, 
etc.),  we  have  to  take  into  consideration,  and  frequently  invoke  the 
aid  of  subsidiary  sciences  (sociology,  pathology,  hygiene).  Varia- 
tions constitute  the  most  important  subject  of  inquiry  in  pedagogic 
anthropology,  just  as  fixed  characteristics  constitute  the  essential 
matter  of  research  in  general  anthropology:  because  the  latter 
endeavours,  by  the  help  of  fixed  characteristics,  to  trace  back  to 
the  origin  of  species,  while  the  former  tries,  through  the  help  of 
variable  characteristics,  to  discover  a  way  for  the  future  perfec- 
tionment  of  the  human  species  and  the  individual:  indeed,  this  is 
precisely  what  constitutes  the  practical  purpose  of  its  application 
to  pedagogy. 

In  comparison  with  criminal  and  medical  anthropology,  peda- 
gogic anthropology  differs  substantially  in  its  declared  intentions. 
These  other  two  kindred  branches  endeavour  to  diagnose  the  per- 
sonality of  the  individual;  we  must  admit  that  both  psychiatry 
and  general  medical  practice  profit  by  the  application  of  anthro- 
pology to  the  extent  of  securing  greater  accuracy  in  diagnosis  and 
prognosis;  but  whenever  the  study  of  a  patient's  personality  sheds 
light  upon  decisions  of  this  sort,  it  generally  follows  that  the 
personality  is  fixed  and  unalterable.  For  instance,  when,  in 
medical  practice  an  individual  constitution  is  shown  to  be  fatally  pre- 
disposed to  certain  definite  diseases,  that  is  precisely  one  of  the  cases 
where  medical  treatment  is  most  impotent;  and  the  same  may  be 
said  when,  in  the  practice  of  criminal  law  we  find  a  defendant 
whose  personality  is  profoundly  degenerate.  It  follows  that  the 
application  of  these  new  anthropological  methods  is  substantially 
diagnostic;  furthermore,  they  are  limited  to  special  classes  of 
human  beings,  to  those  who  are  physiologically  the  most  impover- 
ished, such  as  criminals  and  the  diseased.  Pedagogic  anthropology, 
on  the  contrary,  embraces  all  humanity;  but  it  pays  special  atten- 
tion to  that  part  of  it  which  is  psychologically  superior:  the  normal 
human  being.  Its  purpose  is  none  the  less  diagnostic;  but  it 


36  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

regards  diagnosis  as  constituting  a  means,  and  not  merely  indicat- 
ing an  end;  because  the  end  projected  by  pedagogic  anthropology 
is  a  far-reaching  and  rational  system  of  hygiene. 

More  than  that,  the  proposed  system  is  the  one  true  one,  a 
hygiene  that  pays  more  attention  to  the  man  himself  than  to 
his  environment;  striving  to  perfect  him  in  his  physiological 
functions,  or  to  correct  any  tendency  to  abnormal  and  patho- 
logical deviations. 

It  follows  that,  in  pedagogic  anthropology,  the  direction  taken 
by  the  naturalistic  study  of  man  is  predominantly  physiological. 

In  the  same  manner  as  the  other  two  kindred  branches  of  anthro- 
pology, this  branch  which  has  joined  forces  with  pedagogy  has 
severed  connection  with  the  original  parent  stock  of  general 
anthropology,  and  abandoned  its  dogmatisms  and  to  a  large  extent 
its  phraseology. 

Criminal  anthropology,  for  example,  shows  great  daring  and 
scant  accuracy  in  its  affirmations  and  its  researches;  and  to  a  large 
extent  it  has  acquired  a  nomenclature  of  its  own;  and  medical 
anthropology  lays  down  laws  that  general  anthropology  never 
took  into  consideration,  and  neglects  to  bestow  particular  attention 
upon  the  head,  which  formed  the  object  of  fundamental  research  in 
general  anthropology. 

In  the  same  way,  pedagogic  anthropology  has  had  to  emancipate 
itself  from  the  general  science  from  which  it  has  sprung,  in  order  to 
proceed  unhampered  along  the  practical  line  of  research,  which 
consists  essentially  in  a  study  of  the  pupil  and  the  compilation  of 
biographic  charts,  from  which  a  fund  of  material  will  result, 
destined  to  enrich  the  scientific  content  of  this  branch  of  learning. 

But  since  the  study  of  the  pupil  must  not  be  morphological 
alone,  but  psychological  as  well,  it  is  necessary  for  anthropology  to 
invoke  the  aid  of  experimental  psychology,  in  order  to  achieve 
its  purpose.  Now  it  is  essential  to  psychology,  no  less  than  to 
pedagogic  anthropology,  to  study  the  reactions  of  the  physiological 
and  psychical  personality  of  the  child  in  the  environment  which  we 
call  school.  Consequently  it  is  reserved  for  the  teacher  to  make  a 
large  contribution  to  these  two  parallel  sciences,  which  are  coming 
to  assume  the  highest  social  importance. 

It  follows  further  that  pedagogic  anthropology  differs  from  the 
other  two  allied  branches  in  its  practical  applications;  the  progress 
of  criminal  and  medical  anthropology  requires,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 


INTRODUCTION  37 

only  the  labors  of  medical  specialists;  in  the  case  of  pedagogic 
anthropology  there  is  equally  a  need  of  medical  specialists,  to 
whom  the  diagnosis  and  the  treatment  of  abnormal  pupils  must  be 
entrusted,  as  well  as  the  hygiene  of  their  development ;  but  in  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  teachers  also  are  summoned  to  a  vast  task  of 
observation,  which,  by  its  continuity,  will  supplement  and  com- 
plete the  periodic  observations  of  the  physician. 

Furthermore,  the  teacher  will  acquire  under  the  guidance  of 
anthropology  certain  practical  rules  in  the  art  of  educating  the 
child;  and  it  is  this  especially  that  makes  the  anthropological  and 
psychological  training  of  the  modern  teacher  so  necessary. 

The  school  constitutes  an  immense  field  for  research;  it  is  a 
"pedagogical  clinic,"  which,  in  view  of  its  importance,  can  be 
compared  to  no  other  gathering  of  subjects  for  study.  Thanks  to 
the  system  of  compulsory  education,  it  gathers  to  itself  every 
living  human  being  of  both  sexes  and  of  every  social  caste,  normal 
and  abnormal;  and  it  retains  them  there,  throughout  a  most 
important  period  of  their  growth.  This  is  the  field,  therefore, 
in  which  the  culture  of  the  human  race  can  really  and  practically 
be  undertaken;  and  the  joint  labour  of  physician  and  teacher 
will  sow  the  seed  of  a  future  human  hygiene,  adapted  to  achieve 
perfection  in  man,  both  as  a  species  and  as  a  social  unit. 


72519 


CHAPTER  I 


IN  order  to  understand  the  practical  researches  that  must  be 
conducted  for  anthropological  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
an  adequate  preparation  in  the  science  of  biology.  The  inter- 
pretation of  the  data  that  have  to  be  gathered  according  to  tech- 
nical procedure,  demands  a  training;  and  this  training  will  form  our 
subject  in  the  theoretic  part  of  the  present  volume.  The  limits, 
however,  not  only  of  the  book  itself,  but  of  pedagogic  anthropology 
as  well,  preclude  anything  more  than  a  simple  general  outline; 
but  this  can  be  supplemented  by  those  other  branches  of  study 
which  are  either  collateral  to  it  or  constitute  its  necessary  basis 
(i.e.,  general  biology,  human  anatomy  and  physiology,  hygiene  of 
environment,  general  anthropology,  etc.). 

THE  MATERIAL  SUBSTRATUM  OF  LIFE 
THE  SYNTHETIC  CONCEPT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  IN  BIOLOGY 

According  to  the  materialistic  theories  of  life,  of  which  Haeckel 
is  the  most  noted  supporter,  life  was  derived  from  a  form  of  matter, 
protoplasm,  which  not  only  has  a  special  chemical  composition, 
but  possesses  further  the  property  of  a  constant  molecular  move- 
ment of  scission  and  redintegration;  vital  metabolism  or  inter- 
change of  matter,  by  which  the  molecules  are  constantly  renewed 
at  the  expense  of  the  environment. 

It  was  Huxley  who  defined  protoplasm  as  the  physical  basis  of 
life;  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  life  does  not  exist  without  protoplasm. 
But  Schultze  and  Haeckel  carried  this  doctrine  further,  to  the 
point  of  maintaining  that  a  minute  particle  of  protoplasm  was  all 
that  was  needed  to  constitute  life;  and  that  such  a  particle  could 
be  formed  naturally,  whenever  the  surrounding  conditions  were 
favorable,  like  any  other  inorganic  chemical  substance;  and  in 
this  way  the  materialists  endeavoured,  with  great  ingenuousness, 
to  maintain  the  spontaneous  origin  of  life.  And  when  Haeckel 

38 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       39 

thought  that  he  had  discovered  the  monerce  or  living  cells  composed 
of  a  single  particle  of  protoplasm,  he  held  that  these  were  the  first 
species  to  have  appeared  on  earth. 

But  the  further  researches  of  physiologists  and  the  improve- 
ments in  the  technique  of  the  microscope  proved  that  protoplasm 
does  not  exist  independently  in  nature;  because  living  cells  are 
always  a  combination  of  protoplasm  and  a  nucleus.  If  the  nucleus 
is  extracted  from  a  radiolarium,  the  latter  mortifies,  and  the  proto- 
plasm also  dies;  if  an  amoeba  is  severed  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
part  contains  nucleus  and  protoplasm  and  the  other  protoplasm 
alone,  it  will  be  found  that  the  latter  part  mortifies  and  dies, 
while  the  first  part  continues  to  live.  If  an  infusorium  is  divided 
in  such  a  way  that  each  of  the  separate  sections  contains  a  part  of 
the  nucleus  and  a  part  of  the  protoplasm,  two  living  infusoria  are 
developed  similar  to  the  original  one.  Experiments  of  this  kind, 
to  which  Verworn  has  given  high  authority,  serve  to  prove  that 
life  does  not  exist  except  in  cells  divisible  into  protoplasm  and 
nucleus.  Further  discoveries  confirm  this  theory,  as  for  instance 
the  presence  of  a  nucleus  in  hemacytes  or  red  blood  corpuscles, 
which  were  formerly  believed  to  be  instances  of  anuclear  cells; 
and  the  discovery  of  protoplasm  in  microbes,  which  had  formerly 
been  considered  free  nuclei. 

Now,  when  we  have  an  independent  living  cell,  it  represents  an 
individual,  which  not  only  has,  as  a  general  feature,  this  primitive 
complexity  of  parts,  but  also  certain  special  characteristics  of 
form,  of  reaction  to  environment,  etc.,  that  mark  the  species  to 
which  this  particular  living  creature  belongs. 

Accordingly,  we  cannot  assert,  without  committing  the  error 
of  confining  ourselves  to  a  generic  detail,  that  life  originates  in  pro- 
toplasm or  in  a  combination  divisible  into  protoplasm  and  nucleus; 
we  should  say  that  life  originates  in  living  individuals;  since,  aside 
from  abstract  speculation,  there  can  be  no  other  material  substra- 
tum of  life. 

Such  a  doctrine  is  eminently  synthetic,  and  opens  the  mind  to 
new  conceptions  regarding  the  properties  that  characterise  life. 

Formerly  when  life  was  defined  as  a  form  of  matter  (proto- 
plasm) subject  to  constant  movement  (metabolism),  only  a  single 
general  property  had  been  stated;  for  that  matter,  even  the  stars 
consist  of  matter  and  movement;  and,  according  to  the  modern 
theory  of  electrons,  atoms  are  composed  of  little  particles  strongly 


40  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

charged  with  electricity  and  endowed  with  perennial  motion. 
Accordingly,  these  are  universal  characteristics,  and  not  peculiar 
to  life;  and  metabolism  may  be  regarded  as  a  variation  of  such 
a  property,  which  is  provoked  by,  or  at  least  associated  with  the 
phenomenon  of  life. 

The  properties  which  are  really  characteristic  of  life  have  been 
summed  up  by  Laloy  in  two  essential  groups;  final  causes  and 
limitations  of  mass,  or,  to  use  a  term  more  appropriate  to  living 
organisms,  limitations  of  form  and  size. 

The  term  final  causes  refers  to  a  series  of  phenomena  that  are 
met  with  only  where  there  is  life,  and  that  tend  toward  a  definite 
purpose  or  end.  Living  organisms  take  nutriment  from  their 
environment,  to  the  end  of  assimilating  it,  that  is,  transforming  it 
from  an  inert,  indifferent  substance  into  a  substance  that  is  a 
living  part  of  themselves. 

This  phenomenon  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  characteristic. 
But  there  ar.e  still  other  forms  of  final  cause,  such  for  example  as 
the  transformation  of  the  fertilised  ovum  into  the  fully  developed 
individual,  predetermined  in  its  essential  characteristics,  such  as 
form,  dimensions,  colour,  activities,  etc.  There  are  ova  that  to  all 
appearances  are  exactly  alike;  the  human  ovum  itself  is  nothing 
more  than  a  simple  cell  composed  of  protoplasm  and  nucleus, 
measuring  only  a  tenth  of  a  millimeter  ( =  ^-5  inch) ;  yet  all 
these  ovum  cells  produce  living  organisms  of  the  utmost  diversity; 
yet  so  definitely  predetermined  that,  if  we  know  to  what  species 
the  ovum  belongs,  we  are  able  to  predict  how  many  bones  will 
compose  the  skeleton  of  the  animal  destined  to  develop  from  it, 
and  whether  this  animal  will  fly  or  creep  upon  the  ground,  or  rise 
to  take  a  place  among  those  who  have  made  themselves  the  lords 
of  the  earth.  Furthermore,  knowing  the  phases  of  development, 
we  may  predetermine  at  what  periods  the  successive  transforma- 
tions that  lead  step  by  step  to  the  complete  development  of  the 
individual  will  take  place. 

Another  form  of  final  cause  is  seen  in  the  actions  of  living 
creatures,  which  reveal  a  self -consciousness;  a  consciousness  that 
even  in  its  most  obscure  forms  guides  them  toward  a  destined  end. 

Thus,  for  example,  even  the  infusoria  that  may  be  seen  through 
a  microscope  in  a  drop  of  water,  chasing  hither  and  thither  in 
great  numbers,  avoiding  collision  with  one  another,  or  contending 
over  some  particle  of  food,  or  rushing  in  a  mass  toward  an  un- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY      41 

expected  ray  of  light,  give  us  a  keen  impression  of  their  possession 
of  consciousness,  a  dim  glimmering  of  self-will,  which  is  the  most 
elementary  form  of  that  phenomenon  that  manifests  itself  more 
and  more  clearly,  from  the  metazoa  upward,  through  the  whole 
zoologic  scale :  the  final  cause  of  psychic  action. 

Again,  in  multicellular  organisms  there  are  certain  continuous 
and  so-called  vital  phenomena,  which  some  physiologists  attribute 
to  cellular  consciousness:  for  example,  the  leucocytes  in  the  blood 
seem  to  obey  a  sort  of  glimmering  consciousness  when  they  rush 
to  the  encounter  of  any  danger  threatening  the  organism,  and 
ingest  microbes  or  other  substances  foreign  to  the  blood;  and  it  is 
also  due  to  a  phenomenon  that  cannot  be  explained  by  the  phys- 
ical laws  of  osmosis,  that  the  erythrocytes  or  red  blood  corpuscles 
and  the  plasma  in  the  blood  never  interchange  sodium  salts  for 
those  of  potassium;  and  lastly  the  cells  of  each  separate  gland  seem 
to  select  from  the  blood  the  special  substances  that  are  needed  for 
the  formation  of  their  specific  products :  saliva,  milk,  the  pancreatic 
juice,  etc. 

Still  another  manifestation  of  final  cause  is  the  tendency  ex- 
hibited by  each  living  individual  to  make  a  constant  struggle  for 
life,  a  struggle  that  depends  upon  a  minimum  expenditure  of  force 
for  a  maximum  realisation  of  life,  thanks  to  which  life  multiplies, 
invades  its  environment,  adapts  itself  to  it,  and  is  transformed. 

Another  fundamental  synthetic  characteristic  of  life  is  the 
limitation  of  form  and  size  that  is  a  fixed  and  constant  factor  in 
the  characteristics  of  each  species;  the  body  of  the  living  individual 
cannot  grow  indefinitely. 

Living  creatures  do  not  increase  in  quantity  by  the  successive 
accumulation  of  matter,  as  is  the  case  with  inorganic  bodies,  but 
by  reproduction,  that  is,  the  multiplication  of  individuals. 

Through  the  phenomenon  of  reproduction,  life  has  a  share  in 
the  eternity  of  matter  and  cf  force,  that  is,  in  a  universal  phenom- 
enon. But  what  distinguishes  it  is  that  the  individual  creatures 
produced  by  other  living  individuals  form,  each  one  of  them,  an 
indivisible  element  in  which  life  manifests  itself;  and  this  element 
is  morphologically  fixed  in  the  limits  of  its  form  and  size. 

The  peculiarities  which  are  attributed  to  the  chemical  action 
of  protoplasm  are  of  an  analytic  character,  so  far  as  they  concern 
the  fundamental  characteristics  of  life.  The  constant  inter- 
change of  matter,  namely,  metabolism,  constitutes  undoubtedly  a 


42  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

phenomenon  peculiar  to  living  matter,  protoplasm;  but  protoplasm 
does  not  exist  apart  from  living  organisms.  And  what  constitutes 
its  chief  characteristic  is  that,  when  brought  into  contact  with  it, 
inert  substances  are  assimilated,  i.  e.,  they  become  like  it,  or 
rather,  are  transformed  into  protoplasm;  mineral  salts  such  as  the 
nitrates  or  nitrites  of  sodium  and  potassium  are  transformed  in  the 
case  of  plants  into  living  plasma  capable  of  germinating  either  into 
a  rose  bush  or  a  plane  tree  or  a  palm,  and  inert  organic  substances 
such  as  bread  or  wine  are  transformed  into  human  flesh  and  blood. 
So  that  the  phenomenon  of  assimilation  outweighs,  as  a  character- 
istic of  life,  the  molecular  chemical  action  through  which  it  is 
accomplished.  Since  metabolism  does  not  occur  in  nature  as  a 
chemical  phenomenon,  and  cannot  be  produced  artificially,  but 
is  found  only  in  the  matter  composing  living  organisms,  it  follows 
that  life  is  the  cause  of  this  form  of  dynamic  action,  and  not  that 
this  dynamic  action  is  the  cause  of  life.* 

Even  the  latest  theory,  developed  especially  by  Ludwig  in 
Germany — that  protoplasm  contains  a  separate  enzyme  for  each 
separate  function  appointed  to  a  particular  task — amounts  to 
nothing  more  than  an  analysis  of  the  living  organism. 

THE  FORMATION  OF  MULTICELLULAR  ORGANISMS 

We  cannot  say  that  the  cell  is  the  element  of  life,  because,  in 
an  absolute  sense,  it  is  not  alive;  it  lives  only  when  it  constitutes 
an  individual.  Even  the  brain  cells,  the  muscular  fibres,  the  leuco- 
cytes, etc.,  are  cells;  but  they  do  not  live  independently;  their  life 
depends  upon  the  living  individual  that  contains  them.  We  may, 
however,  define  the  cell  as  the  means,  the  morphological  material, 
out  of  which  all  living  organisms  are  formed:  because,  from  the 
algae  to  the  orchids,  from  the  ccelenterata  up  to  man,  all  complex 
organisms  are  composed  of  an  accumulation  of  those  microscopic 
little  bodies  that  we  call  cells. 

The  manner  of  union  between  the  cells  in  the  most  primitive 
living  colonies,  whether  vegetable  or  animal,  is  analogous  to  that 
followed  in  the  segmentation  of  the  ovum  in  its  ontogenetic  (i.e., 
individual)  development. 

•See  further,  as  to  these  fundamental  ideas:  Laloy,  V Evolution  de  la  Vie.  Petite  En- 
cyclopedic du  XX  Sikcle;  CLAUDE  BERNARD,  Legons  sur  les  Phenomenes  de  la  Vie;  Lu 
DENTU,  in  La  Matiere  Vivante,  et  Thtorie  nouvelle  de  la  Vie;  Luciani,  Fisiologia  Umana, 
in  the  first  chapter:  "Material  Substratum  of  Vital  Phenomena." 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       43 

But  the  manner  of  construction  differs  notably,  as  between 
animal  and  vegetable  cells. 

Vegetable  cells,  on  the  one  hand,  have  a  resistant  and  strongly 
protective  membrane;  animal  cells,  on  the  contrary,  have  either 
a  very  thin  membrane  or  none  at  all.  Vegetable  cells,  as  though 
made  venturesome  by  their  natural  protection,  proceed  to  invade 
their  environment  in  colonies — in  other  words,  the  cells  dispose 
themselves  in  series  of  linear  ramifications — witness  the  formation 
of  primitive  algae;  and  analogously  the  expansion  of  the  higher 
types  of  vegetation  into  their  environment,  with  branches,  leaves, 
etc.  And  just  as  though  the  vegetable  cell  acquired  self-confi- 
dence because  it  is  so  well  protected,  it  becomes  stationary  and 
strikes  its  roots  into  the  soil. 

To  this  same  fact  of  cellular  protection  must  be  attributed  the 
inferior  sensibility  and  hence  the  permanent  state  of  obscured 
consciousness  in  vegetable  life. 

This  protection  against  the  assaults  of  environment,  and  the  con- 
sequent lack  of  sensibility,  constitute  from  the  outset  an  inferior 
stage  of  evolution. 

Animal  cells  have  an  entirely  different  manner  of  forming 
themselves  into  colonies;  acting  as  though  they  were  afraid,  they 
group  themselves  in  the  form  of  a  little  sphere,  enclosing  their 
environment  within  themselves,  instead  of  reaching  out  to  invade 
it;  and  subsequent  developments  of  the  animal  cell  consist  in  suc- 
cessive and  complex  invaginations,  or  formations  of  layers,  one 
within  another — instead  of  ramifications,  after  the  manner  of 
vegetable  cells. 

Accordingly,  if  we  advance  from  that  primitive  animal  type,  the 
volvox,  consisting  of  a  simple  group  of  cells  arranged  spherically, 
like  an  elastic  rubber  ball,  to  the  ccelenterata,  we  meet  with  the 
phenomenon  of  the  first  invagination,  producing  an  animal  body 
consisting  of  two  layers  of  cells  and  an  internal  cavity,  communicating 
with  the  exterior  by  means  of  a  pore  or  mouth.  The  two  layers 
of  cells  promptly  divide  their  task,  the  outer  layer  becoming  pro- 
tective and  the  inner  nutritive;  and  in  consequence  of  then*  different 
functions,  the  cells  themselves  alter,  the  outer  layer  acquiring  a 
tougher  consistency,  while  the  inner  remains  soft  in  order  to  absorb 
whatever  nutriment  is  brought  by  the  water  as  it  passes  through 
the  mouth.  In  this  way,  there  is  a  division  of  labor,  such  that  all 
the  external  cells  protect  not  only  themselves,  but  the  whole 


44 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


organism;  while  the  internal  cells  absorb  nutriment  not  only  for 
themselves  but  for  the  others.  This  is  the  simplest  example  of  a 
process  that  becomes  more  and  more  complex  in  the  formation  of 
higher  organisms;  in  adapting  themselves  to  their  work,  the  cells 
become  greatly  modified  (formation  of  tissues)  and  perform 
services  that  are  useful  to  the  entire  organism.  And  at  the  same 
time,  because  of  the  very  fact  that  they  have  been  differentiated, 
they  become  dependent  upon  the  labors  of  others,  for  obtaining 
the  means  of  subsistence.  Similar  laws  seem  to 
persist  even  at  the  present  day  in  the  formation 
of  social  organisms,  in  human  society. 

During   the  development  of  the  embryo,  all 
animals  pass  through  similar  phases;  and  to  this 
man  is  no  exception. 
^  FlG*   1;"7Hu-Taf          He  traces  his  origin  to  an  ovum-cell  formed 

Ovum,      Magnified.  c 

a.    Viteiiine  mem-    of  protoplasm,  nucleus  and  membrane,  measur- 
Reside".1  °'    ing  only  a  tenth  of  a  millimetre/yet  vastly  large 


in  comparison  with  the  spermatic  cell  destined 
to  fertilise  it  by  passing  through  one  of  the  innumerable  pores 
that  render  the  dense  membrane  penetrable.  . 

After  the  ovum-cell  is  fertilised,  it  consti- 
tutes the  first  cell  of  the  new  being;  that  is,  it 
contains  potentially  a  man.  But  as  seen  through 
the  microscope,  it  is  really  not  materially  any- 


Fio.  2. —  First 
Segmentation  of  a 
Fertilised  Ovum. 


Fio.  3. — A  Morula 
as  seen  from  the 
Outside. 


FIG.  4. — An  Egg  and 
Spermatozoon  of  the 
same  Species,  about  to 
Fertilise  It.  Note  the 
difference  in  the  pro- 
portional size  of  the 
two  cells. 


thing  more  than  a  microscopic  cell,  undifferentiated,  and  in  all 
things  similar  to  other  independent  cells  or  to  fertilised  ovarian 
cells  belonging  to  other  animals.  That  which  it  contains,  namely, 
man,  often  already  predetermined  not  only  in  species,  but  in 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       45 

individual  characteristics — as,  for  instance,  in  degenerative  in- 
feriority— is  certainly  not  there  in  material  form. 

At  an  early  stage  of  the  embryo's  development,  it  exhibits  a 
form  analogous  to  that  of  the  volvox;  namely,  a  hollow  sphere, 
called  the  morula;  and  subsequently,  by  the  process  of  in  vagi- 
nation,  two  layers  of  cells,  an  inner  and  an  outer,  are  formed, 
together  with  the  first  body  cavity,  destined  to  become  the 
digestive  cavity,  and  also  a  pore  corresponding  to  the  mouth. 

This  formation  has  received  the  name  of  gastrula  (Fig.  10,  facing 
page  72),  and  the  two  layers  of  cells  are  known  as  the  primary 
layers,  otherwise  called  the  ectoderm  and  the  entoderm.  To  these  a 
third  intermediate  layer  is  soon  added,  the  mesoderm.  These  three 
layers  consist  of  cells  that  are  not  perceptibly  differentiated  from 
one  another;  but  potentially  each  and  every  one  contains  its  own 
special  final  cause.  In  each  of  the  three  layers,  invaginations  take 
place,  furrows  destined  to  develop  into  the  nervous  system,  the 
lungs,  the  liver,  the  various  different  glands,  the  generative  organs; 
and  during  the  progress  of  such  modifications,  corresponding 
changes  take  place  in  the  elementary  cells,  which  become  differ- 
entiated into  tissues.  From  the  ectoderm  are  developed  the  nerv- 
ous system  and  the  skin  tissues;  from  the  entoderm,  the  digestive 
system  with  its  associate  glands  (the  liver,  pancreas,  etc.) ;  from 
the  mesoderm,  the  supporting  tissues  (bones  and  cartilage)  and 
the  muscles.  But  all  these  cells,  even  the  most  complex  and  spe- 
cialised, as  for  example  those  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  the  fibres  of 
the  striped  muscles,  the  hepatic  cells,  etc.,  were  orginally  em- 
bryonic cells — in  other  words,  simple,  undifferentiated,  all  starting 
on  an  equal  footing.  Yet  every  one  of  them  had  within  it  a 
predestined  end  that  led  it  to  occupy,  as  it  multiplied  in  number, 
a  certain  appointed  portion  of  the  body,  in  order  to  perform 
the  work,  to  which  the  profound  alterations  in  its  cellular  tissues 
should  ultimately  adapt  it. 

Like  children  in  the  same  school,  these  embryonic  cells,  all 
apparently  just  alike,  contain  certain  dormant  activities  and  des- 
tinies that  are  profoundly  different.  This  unquestionably  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  properties  of  life,  namely,  the  final  cause;  it 
is  certainly  associated  intimately  with  metabolism  and  nutrition, 
considered  as  a  means  of  development  and  not  as  a  cause.  Upon 
metabolism,  however,  depends  the  more  or  less  complete  attain- 
ment of  the  final  cause  of  life.  In  man,  for  example,  strength, 


46  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

health,  beauty,  on  the  one  hand,  degeneration  on  the  other,  stand 
in  intimate  relations  with  the  nutrition  of  the  embryo.* 

The  Theories  of  Evolution. — At  the  present  day,  there  is  a 
general  popular  understanding  of  the  fundamental  principles 
involved  in  the  mechanical  or  materialistic  theories  of  evolution 
which  bear  the  names  of  Lamarck,  Geffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  and 
more  especially  the  glorious  name  of  Charles  Darwin. 

According  to  these  theories,  the  environment  is  regarded  as 
the  chief  cause  of  the  evolution  of  organic  forms.  Charles  Darwin, 
who  formulated  the  best  and  most  detailed  theory  of  evolution, 
based  it  on  the  two  principles  of  the  variability  of  living  organisms, 
and  heredity,  which  transmits  their  characteristics  from  generation 
to  generation.  And  in  explanation  of  the  underlying  cause  of 
evolution,  he  expounded  the  doctrines  of  the  struggle  for  existence 
and  the  natural  selection  of  such  organic  forms  as  succeeded  to  a 
sufficient  degree  in  adapting  themselves  to  their  environment. 

Whatever  the  explanation  may  be,  the  substantial  fact  re- 
mains of  the  variability  of  species  and  the  successive  and  gradual 
transition  from  lower  to  higher  forms.  In  this  way,  the  higher 
animals  and  plants  must  have  had  as  antecedents  other  forms  of 
inferior  species,  of  which  they  still  bear  more  or  less  evident  traces; 
and  in  applying  these  theories  to  the  interpretation  of  the  person- 
alities of  human  degenerates,  he  frequently  invoked  the  so-called 
principle  of  atavism,  in  order  to  explain  the  reappearance  of  atavis- 
tic traits  that  have  been  outgrown  in  the  normal  human  being, 
certain  anomalies  of  form  more  or  less  analogous  to  parallel  forms 
in  lower  species  of  animals. 

There  are  other  theories  of  evolution  less  familiar  than  that  of 
Darwin.  Naegeli,  for  instance,  attributes  the  variability  of 
species  to  internal,  rather  than  external  causes — namely,  to  a 
spontaneous  activity,  implanted  in  life  itself,  and  analogous  to 
that  which  is  witnessed  in  the  development  of  an  individual  organ- 
ism, from  the  primitive  cell  up  to  the  final  complete  development; 
without,  however,  attributing  to  the  progressive  alterations  in 
species  that  predestined  final  goal  which  heredity  determines  in 
the  development  of  individual  organisms. 

The  internal  factor,  namely  life,  is  the  primary  cause  of  progress 
and  the  perfectionment  of  living  creatures — while  environment 

•Consult:  HAECKEL,  Anthropogenic;  E.  PERKIER,  Les  Colonies  animates  et  la  Formation 
des  Organismes;  RICHET,  L'  Effort  vers  la  Vie,  et  la  Thtorie  des  Causes  finales. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY      47 

assumes  a  secondary  importance,  such  as  that  of  directing  evolu- 
tion, acting  at  one  time  as  a  stimulus  toward  certain  determined 
directions  of  development;  at  another,  permanently  establishing 
certain  useful  characteristics;  and  still  again,  effacing  such  forms 
as  are  unfit. 

In  this  way  the  external  causes  are  associated  with  evolution, 
but  with  very  different  effects  from  those  attributed  to  them  by 
Darwin,  who  endowed  them  with  the  creative  power  to  produce 
new  organs  and  new  forms  of  life. 

Naegeli  compared  the  internal  forces  to  invested  capital;  it 
will  draw  a  higher  or  lower  rate  of  interest,  according  as  its  environ- 
ment proves  to  be  more  or  less  favourable  to  earning  a  profit. 

The  most  modern  theory  of  evolution  is  that  of  De  Vries,  who, 
after  having  witnessed  the  spontaneous  and  unforeseen  transfor- 
mations of  a  certain  plant,  the  (Enohtera  Lamarckiana,  without 
the  intervention  of  any  external  phenomenon,  admitted  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  unexpected  occurrence  of  other  new  forms,  from  a 
preexistent  parent  form — and  to  such  phenomena  he  gave  the 
name  of  mutations. 

It  is  these  mutations  that  create  new  species ;  the  latter,  although 
apparently  unheralded,  were  already  latent  in  the  germ  before  they 
definitely  burst  into  life.  Consequently,  new  species  are  formed 
potentially  in  the  germinating  cells,  through  spontaneous  activity. 

The  characteristics  established  by  mutations  are  hereditary, 
and  the  species  which  result  from  them  persist,  provided  their 
environment  affords  favourable  conditions,  better  suited  to  them 
than  to  the  preexisting  parent  form. 

Accordingly  new  species  are  created  unexpectedly.  De  Vries 
draws  a  distinction  between  mutations  and  variations,  holding 
that  the  latter  are  dependent  upon  environment,  and  that  in  any 
case  they  constitute  simple  oscillations  of  form  around  the  normal 
type  determined  in  each  species  by  mutation. 

Species,  therefore,  cannot  be  transformed  by  external  causes  or 
environments,  and  the  mechanism  of  transformation  is  not  that 
of  a  succession  of  very  gradual  variations,  which  have  given  rise 
to  the  familiar  saying:  natura  non  facit  saltus.  On  the  contrary, 
what  produces  stable  characteristics  is  a  revolution  prepared  in 
a  latent  state,  but  unannounced  in  its  final  disclosure.  A  parallel 
to  this  is  to  be  found,  for  example,  in  the  phenomena  of  puberty 
in  its  relation  to  the  evolution  of  the  individual. 


48  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Now,  when  a  species  has  once  reached  a  fixed  stability  as 
regards  its  characteristics,  it  is  immutable,  after  the  analogy  of  an 
individual  organism  that  has  completed  its  development;  hence- 
forth its  further  evolution  is  ended.  In  such  a  case,  the  oscilla- 
tions of  variability  are  exceedingly  limited,  and  adaptation  to 
new  environments  is  difficult;  and  while  a  species  may  offer  the 
appearance  of  great  strength  (e.g.,  certain  species  of  gigantic 
extinct  animals),  it  runs  the  risk  of  dying  out,  because  of.  a  lower 
potentiality  of  adaptability;  or,  according  to  the  theory  of  Rosa, 
it  may  even  become  extinct  spontaneously. 

Accordingly  it  is  not  the  fixed  species  that  continue  the  process 
of  evolution.  If  we  compare  the  tree  of  life  to  a  plant,  we  may 
imagine  evolution  as  soaring  upward,  sustained  by  roots  far  below; 
the  new  branches  are  not  put  forth  by  the  old  branches,  but  draw 
their  sustenance  from  the  original  sources,  from  which  the  whole 
tree  draws  its  life.  When  a  branch  matures  and  flowers,  it  may 
survive  or  it  may  wither  but  it  cannot  extend  the  growth  of  the 
tree. 

Furthermore,  the  new  branches  are  always  higher  up  than  the 
old  ones;  that  which  comes  last  is  the  highest  of  all. 

Thus,  the  species  which  are  the  latest  in  acquiring  a  stable  form 
are  the  highest  up  in  the  biological  scale,  because  the  privilege 
of  carrying  forward  the  process  of  evolution  belongs  to  those 
species  which  have  not  yet  become  fixed.  An  apparent  weakness, 
instability,  an  active  capacity  for  adaptation,  are  consequently 
so  many  signs  of  superiority,  as  regards  a  potential  power  of  evolu- 
tion— just  as  the  nudity  and  sensibility  of  animal  cells,  for  example, 
are  signs  of  superiority,  as  compared  with  vegetable  cells — and  of 
man,  as  compared  with  the  lower  animals. 

In  order  to  show  that  the  inferiority  of  a  species  is  in  propor- 
tion to  its  precocity  in  attaining  fixed  characteristics,  Rosa  con- 
ceived the  following  striking  comparison.  Two  animals  are 
fleeing,  along  the  same  road,  before  an  advancing  flood.  One  of 
the  two  climbs  to  the  top  of  a  neighboring  tree,  the  other  continues 
in  its  flight  toward  a  mountain.  As  the  level  of  the  water  rises, 
it  threatens  to  isolate  and  engulf  the  animal  now  stalled  upon  the 
tree;  the  other  animal,  still  fleeing  toward  the  heights,  reaches,  on 
the  contrary,  a  higher  and  more  secure  position. 

The  animal  on  the  tree  stands  for  an  inferior  species  that  has 
earlier  attained  a  fixed  form;  the  other  represents  a  higher  species 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       49 

that  has  continued  to  evolve;  but  the  animal  upon  the  mountain 
never  was  on  the  tree  at  all,  because,  if  he  had  mounted  it  and 
become  caught  there,  he  would  have  lost  his  chance  of  continuing 
on  his  way.  In  other  words,  the  higher  species  never  was  the  lower 
species,  since  the  characteristics  of  the  latter  are  already  fixed. 

Some  eloquent  comparisons  might  be  drawn  from  the  social 
life  of  to-day.  We  are  all  of  us  spurred  on  to  choose  as  early  as 
possible  some  form  of  employment  that  will  place  us  in  a  secure 
and  definite  place  at  the  great  banquet  of  existence.  The  idea  of 
continuing  to  follow  an  indefinite  and  uncertain  path,  leading 
upward  toward  the  heights  is  far  less  attractive  than  the  safe  and 
comfortable  shelter  of  the  shady  tree  that  rises  by  the  wayside. 
The  same  law  of  inertia  applies  to  every  form  of  life.  Biological 
evolution  bears  witness  to  it,  in  the  forms  of  the  different  species ; 
social  evolution,  in  the  forms  of  the  professions  and  trades;  the 
evolution  of  thought,  in  the  forms  of  the  different  faiths.  And 
whoever  first  halts  in  any  path  of  life,  the  path  of  study,  for 
instance,  occupies  a  lower  place  than  he  who  continues  on  his  road. 

The  salaried  clerk,  armed  only  with  his  high-school  certificate, 
has  an  assured  income  and  the  pleasures  of  family  life,  at  a  time 
when  the  physician,  with  an  independent  profession,  is  still  strug- 
gling to  establish  a  practice.  But  the  obscure  clerk  will  eventu- 
ally hold  a  social  position  below  that  of  the  physician;  his  income 
will  always  be  limited,  while  the  physician  may  acquire  a  fortune. 
Now,  the  clerk,  by  adapting  himself  to  his  bureaucratic  environ- 
ment, has  acquired  certain  well-defined  characteristics;  we  might 
even  say  that  he  has  become  a  representative  type  of  the  species, 
clerk.  And  the  same  will  be  true  of  the  physician  in  his  independ- 
ent and  brilliant  life  as  high  priest  of  humanity,  scientist  and  man 
of  wealth.  Both  men  were  high-school  students,  and  now  they 
are  two  widely  different  social  types;  but  the  physician  never 
represented  the  type  of  clerk;  or,  in  other  words,  he  did  not  have 
to  be  a  clerk  before  he  could  be  a  physician;  on  the  contrary,  if  he 
had  been  a  clerk,  he  never  could  have  become  a  physician.  It  is 
somewhat  after  this  fashion  that  we  must  conceive  of  the  sequence 
of  species  in  evolution.  It  follows  that  man  never  was  an  anthro- 
poid ape,  nor  any  other  animal  now  living  around  us.  Nor  was 
the  man  of  the  white  race  ever  at  any  time  a  negroid  or  a  mongo- 
lian.  Consequently,  the  theory  is  untenable  which  tries  to  ex- 
plain certain  morphological  or  psychic  malformations  of  man,  on 


50  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  principle  of  atavism — because  no  one  can  inherit  if  he  is  not  a 
descendant. 

So,  for  example,  reverting  to  our  previous  comparisons,  if  the 
animal  on  the  mountain  should  climb  a  tree,  or  if  the  physician 
should  become  pedantic,  this  would  not  prove  that  the  animal 
from  the  mountain  was  once  upon  a  time  the  animal  in  the  tree, 
nor  that  the  physician  recalled,  by  his  eventual  pedantry,  certain 
by-gone  days  when  he  was  a  clerk. 

The  theories  of  evolution  seemed  for  a  time  to  illumine  and 
definitely  indicate  the  origin  of  man.  But  this  illusion  has  so  far 
resulted  only  in  relegating  to  still  deeper  darkness  the  truth  that 
the  biologists  are  seeking.  We  do  not  know  of  whom  man  is  the 
son. 

Even  the  earlier  conceptions  regarding  the  mechanics  of  evolu- 
tion are  essentially  altered.  The  mystery  of  the  origin  of  species, 
like  that  of  the  mutability  of  forms,  has  withdrawn  from  the  forms 
that  are  already  developed,  and  taken  refuge  in  the  germinal  cells; 
these  cells  in  which  no  differentiation  is  revealed,  yet  in  which  the 
future  organism,  in  all  its  details,  exists  in  a  potential  state;  in 
which,  we  may  even  say,  life  exists  independent  of  matter,  are  the 
real  laboratorium  vitce.  The  individual,  in  developing,  does  noth- 
ing more  than  obey,  by  fulfilling  the  potentiality  of  the  germs. 

The  direction  of  research  has  shifted  from  the  individual  to  its 
germs.  And  just  as  the  early  Darwinian  theories  evolved  a 
social  ethics,  seemingly  based  upon  the  facts  of  life,  to  serve  as  a 
guide  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  so  in  the  same  way,  to-day, 
there  has  arisen  from  the  modern  theories  a  new  sexual  ethics, 
founded  upon  a  biologic  basis. 

The  Phenomena  of  Heredity. — The  most  interesting  biological 
researches  of  to-day  are  in  regard  to  the  hereditary  transmission 
of  characteristics. 

To-day  the  phenomena  of  heredity  are  no  longer  absolutely 
obscure,  thanks  to  the  studies  of  Mendel,  who  discovered  some 
of  its  laws,  which  seemed  to  open  up  new  lines  of  research  prolific 
in  results.  Yet  even  now,  although  this  field  has  been  invaded 
by  the  most  illustrious  biologists  of  our  time,  among  others, 
De  Vries,  Correns,  Tschermack,  Hurst,  Russell,  it  is  still  in  the 
state  of  investigation.  Nevertheless,  the  general  trend  of  researches 
relative  to  Mendel's  laws  is  too  important  to  permit  of  their 
enlightening  first  steps  being  neglected  by  Anthropology. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       51 

The  first  phenomena  observed  by  Mendel,  and  the  ones  which 
led  him  to  the  discovery  of  the  laws  of  heredity  which  bear  his 
name,  were  revealed  by  a  series  of  experiments  conducted  with 
peas. 

Exposition  of  the  Phenomena  of  Hybridism. — If  two  strains  of 
peas  are  crossed,  one  of  them  having  red  flowers  and  the  other 
•white  flowers,  the  result  in  the  first  generation  is,  that  all  the 
plants  will  have  red  flowers,  precisely  similar  to  those  of  one  of 
the  parent  plants. 

Accordingly,  in  hybridism,  the  characteristic  of  one  of  the 
parents  completely  hides  that  which  is  antagonistic  to  it  in  the 
other  parent.  We  call  this  characteristic  (in  the  case  cited,  the 
red  flowers),  dominant;  in  distinction  to  the  other  characteristic 
which  is  antagonistic  to  the  first  and  overcome  by  it ;  namely,  the 
recessive  characteristic  (in  the  present  case,  the  white  flowers). 
This  is  the  law  of  prevalence,  and  constitutes  Mendel's  first  law, 
which  is  stated  as  follows: 

Mendel's  First  Law:  "When  antagonistic  varieties  or  charac- 
teristics are  crossed  with  each  other,  the  products  of  the  first 
generation  are  all  uniform  and  equal  to  one  of  the  two  parents." 

This  result  has  been  repeatedly  reached  in  a  host  of  researches, 
which  have  experimentally  established  this  phenomenon  as  a  law. 

Thus,  for  example,  if  we  cross  a  nettle  having  leaves  with  an 
indented  margin,  with  a  nettle  having  leaves  with  a  smooth  margin, 
the  product  of  the  first  generation  will  all  have  leaves  with  in- 
dented margins,  and  apparently  identical  with  the  parent  plant 
having  indented  margins,  in  other  words,  having  the  character- 
istic that  has  proved  itself  the  dominant  one  (Russell) . 

These  phenomena  discovered  by  Mendel  have  been  observed 
in  many  different  species  of  plants,  such  as  wheat,  Indian  corn, 
barley  and  beans. 

They  have  also  been  verified  in  certain  animals,  such  as  mice, 
rats,  rabbits,  caveys,  poultry,  snails,  silk-worms,  etc.  One  of  the 
most  typical  experiments  was  that  of  Cue'not,  who,  by  crossing 
ordinary  mice  with  jumping  mice,  obtained  as  a  result  a  first 
generation  composed  wholly  of  normal  mice;  the  characteristic  of 
jumping  was  thus  shown  to  be  recessive. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  first  generation  is  apparently  in 
every  way  similar  to  the  parent  with  the  dominant  character, 
there  is  in  reality  a  difference. 


52 

Because,  if  we  cross  these  hybrids  together,  we  meet,  in  the 
second  generation,  with  the  following  phenomenon:  to  every  three 
individuals  possessing  the  dominant  character,  one  is  born  having 
the  recessive  character.  To  go  back  to  Mendel's  first  example, 
that  of  the  peas  with  red  flowers  (dominant)  and  with  white 
flowers  (recessive),  we  find,  by  crossing  together  the  hybrids  of 
the  first  generation,  that  for  every  three  plants  with  red  flowers,, 
there  is  one  plant  with  white  flowers. 

And  similarly,  the  crossing  of  hybrid  nettles  with  indented 
leaves  will  result  in  a  second  generation  composed  of  three  plants 
with  indented  leaves  to  every  one  with  smooth-edged  leaves  (see 
Fig.  5). 


Tlica 


Dod&rtli+fiilalifera 


jiilulifera. 


Dodarttt 


I 

Gen. 


^^^^f  ^^^^  *^^^^^  ^^j^r 


44  Ilii  HI44  Aft 


FIQ.  5. 


That  is,  the  characteristics  which  belonged  to  the  first  two 
parents  all  survive,  even  though  in  a  latent  form,  in  the  descen- 
dants; and  they  continue  to  differentiate  themselves  in  well 
established  proportions.  In  one  offspring  out  of  four,  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  grandfather,  which  have  remained  dormant  in  the 
father,  once  more  reappear.  This  intermittent  heredity  of 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       53 

characteristics,  that  are  passed  from  grandfather  to  grandson, 
overleaping  the  father,  is  one  of  the  best-known  laws  of  path- 
ological heredity  in  man;  and  it  is  called  atavistic  heredity,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  direct  heredity,  which  denotes  the  transmission 
from  parent  to  offspring.  But  no  explanation  had  ever  been 
found  for  this  sort  of  phenomenon.  Undoubtedly,  it  must  be 
connected  with  the  phenomena  of  Mendelism. 

Accordingly,  in  the  second  generation  Mendel's  second  law  has 
been  established,  the  law  of  disjunction,  which  is  stated  as  follows : 

Mendel's  Second  Law:  "In  the  second  generation  obtained  by 
reciprocal  fertilisation  of  the  first  hybrids,  three  quarters  of  the 
offspring  will  exhibit  the  dominant  character,  and  one  quarter  the 


recessive" 


Mendel's  Hypothesis,  Designed  to  Explain  the  Phenomena  of 
Heredity. — Mendel's  great  service  is  to  have  conceived  a  hypoth- 
esis that  seems  to  have  disclosed  the  key  adapted  to  unlock  all 
the  secrets  of  heredity. 

While  the  body  of  an  individual  is  the  resultant  of  forces  so 
mutually  exclusive  that  the  appearance  of  one  characteristic 
means  the  disappearance  of  its  antagonist;  in  the  development  of 
the  sexual  cells  the  two  antagonistic  characters  are  distributed  in  equal 
proportion.  That  is  to  say,  one-half  of  the  male  cells  contain  the 
dominant  character,  and  one-half  the  recessive;  and  the  same 
holds  true  for  the  female  cells.  The  characters  of  the  two  parents, 
in  other  words,  never  merge  in  the  reproductive  cells,  but  are 
distributed  in  equal  measure,  independently  of  the  question 
whether  they  are  dominant  or  recessive.  Thus  for  example:  in 
the  case  already  cited  of  the  first  hybrid  generation  of  the  peas 
with  red  flowers,  in  every  one  of  the  plants,  without  distinction, 
half  the  pollen  has  potentially  the  red  character  and  half  has  the 
white;  and  in  the  same  way  the  female  cells  have,  half  of  them  a 
red  potentiality  and  half  of  them  a  white.  Such  hybrids  of  the 
first  generation,  therefore,  although  apparently  similar  to  the 
parent  with  red  flowers,  differ  in  their  germinative  powers,  which 
are  not  made  apparent  in  the  individual.  And  the  same  may 
be  said  of  hybrid  nettles  with  indented  leaves,  etc. 

Granting  Mendel's  hypothesis,  we  have  on  the  one  hand  pollen 
and  on  the  other  seed  ready  to  come  together  in  every  manner  in- 
cluded within  the  range  of  possible  combinations;  the  individual 
is,  in  its  characteristics,  nothing  else  than  the  product  of  a  combi- 


54 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


nation  which  must  necessarily  manifest  itself  in  accordance  with 
the  well-known  mathematical  laws  of  probability. 

For  instance,  let  us  proceed  to  diagram  the  possible  disposition 
of  the  sexual  cells  of  the  hybrids  of  peas,  all  of  them  having  red 
flowers.  In  terms  of  percentage,  they  will  give,  out  of  every 
hundred,  fifty  red  and  fifty  white. 

P  =  pollen;  0  =  ova;  R  =  red,  dominant;  w  =  white,  recessive: 
The  possible  number  of  combinations  between  the  pollen 
grains  and  the  ova  are  four;  namely,  RR,  Rw,  wR,  ww.  But  where 
a  dominant  characteristic  encounters  a  recessive  (Rw,  wR),  the 
recessive  disappears,  to  make  way  in  the  individual  for  the  domi- 
nant characteristic  alone.  The  definitive  result  is  three  individuals 
of  dominant  character,  to  one  of  recessive  character. 


(50      R 


RR     R 


RW    R 


FIG.  6. 


Nevertheless,  the  hybrids  of  dominant  character  are  not  all 
equal  among  themselves.  Those  belonging  to  the  combination 
RR,  indeed,  are  permanent  in  character  and  in  all  respects  alike, 
and  they  reproduce  the  original  red-flower  progenitor.  The 
other  red-flower  hybrids,  belonging  to  the  groups  Rw  and  wR  are, 
on  the  contrary,  similar  to  the  hybrids  of  the  first  generation  and 
contain  reproductive  cells  differentiated  in  character;  such  hybrids, 
if  reciprocally  fertilised,  will  again  give  three  dominant  offspring 
to  every  one  recessive;  that  is,  they  will  obey  the  law  of  disjunction. 
The  hybrids  belonging  to  the  fourth  group,  on  the  contrary,  are 
constant,  like  those  of  the  first  group,  and  are  permanently  of 
recessive  character;  and  they  will  reproduce  the  original  pro- 
genitor with  white  flowers. 

The  same  results  may  be  attained  with  nettles  with  smooth 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       55 


and  indented  leaves,  and  with  all  other  types  of  plant  and  animal 
life  that  obey  the  laws  of  Mendelism. 

The  figure  given  actually  represents  the  third  generation  of 
nettles;  from  a  combination  corresponding  to  RR,  there  result 
only  indented  leaves,  and  from  another  combination  corresponding 
to  our  ww  there  result  only  smooth-edged  leaves,  and  from  the  two 
mixed  groups  there  come  three  offspring  with  indented  leaves  to 
every  one  with  smooth  leaves. 

It  is  possible  to  represent,  by  means  of  a  general  diagram,  the 
mathematical  succession  of  characteristics  in  hybrids,  after  the 
following  manner;  denoting  the  dominant  character  by  D,  and  the 
recessive  by  r. 

In  each  successive  generation,  provided  the  fertilisation  takes 
place  only  between  uniform  individuals,  as  indicated  in  the 
diagram,  and  as  may  be  effected  by  actual  experiment  with  plants, 


r    First   crossing  of  individuals   with  antagonistic 
characters. 


First  generation  of  hybrids,  all  alike,  and  simi- 
lar to  the  progenitor  D  (dominant;. 


Second  generation:  for  each  recessive  there  are 
three  dominant:  but  of  these  only  one  is 
permanent. 


Third  generation:  disjunction  of 
the  hybrid  groups  takes  place 
and  new  permanent  groups  are 
formed. 


FIG.   7. 


groups  identical  with  the  original  progenitors  will  continue  to  be 
formed,  through  successive  disjunction  of  the  hybrids;  the  sexual 
phenomenon  operating  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  probability. 

An  effective  experiment,  that  anyone  may  repeat  for  himself, 
is  the  one  originated  by  Darbishire.  He  took  two  boxes,  typifying 
respectively  the  male  and  female  organ,  and  placed  in  them  black 
and  white  disks  of  equal  size,  so  distributed  that  each  box  contained 
fifty  disks  of  each  colour.  After  mixing  these  disks  very  carefully, 
he  proceeded  to  take  at  random  one  disk  at  a  time  alternately 
from  each  box;  and  he  piled  up  each  pair  of  disks  in  such  a  manner 


56 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


that  the  black  ones  should  be  on  top  and  the  white  underneath. 
The  result  was  that  for  every  three  black  disks  on  top  of  the  piles 
there  was  one  white  disk ;  but  of  the  black  groups  one  consisted  of 
two  black  disks,  while  in  the  other  two  the  lower  disk  was  white. 
This  is  simply  one  of  the  many  games  dependent  on  the  laws  of 
probability. 

Now,  supposing  that  instead  of  one,  there  are  two  character- 
istics that  are  in  antagonism;  in  that  case,  we  have  the  occurrence 
of  double  hybridism  (dihybridism). 

Let  us  take  the  strains  of  peas  already  considered,  but  let  us 
choose  for  observation  the  character  of  their  seed.  One  of  the 
plants  has  round  seed  and  yellow  cotyledons;  and  the  other 
angular  seed  and  green  cotyledons.  These  two  characteristics, 
therefore,  are  both  inherent  in  the  seed;  condition  of  surface 
(rough,  smooth),  and  colour  (green,  and  yellow). 

After  fertilisation,  Mendel's  first  law,  that  of  the  prevalence 
of  the  dominant  character,  will  operate,  and  all  the  plants  of  the 
first  generation  will  have  round  seed  and  yellow  cotyledons. 
Hence  these  are  the  dominant  characteristics,  which  we  will 
represent  by  capital  letters:  R  (round),  Y  (yellow),  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  recessive  characteristics,  which  we  will  designate 
with  small  letters:  a  (angular),  and  g  (green). 

According  to  Mendel's  hypothesis,  all  these  hybrids  with  round 
seed  and  yellow  cotyledons,  contain  sexual  cells  of  opposite  poten- 
tialities, numerically  equal  and  corresponding  to -the  antagonistic 
characters  of  the  parent  plants.  That  is,  they  must  have  in  their 
pollen  grains  and  their  ovarian  cells  all  the  possible  combinations 
of  their  different  potentialities. 

They  should  produce  in  equal  quantities: 

pollen  grains  (P)  with  round  seed  and  yellow  cotyledons:  R  Y 


angular 
a 

ovarian  cells  (0)  with  round 

u 

angular 


The  total  number  of  combinations  that  may  result  is  sixteen; 
that  is,  each  one  of  the  four  combinations  of  pollen  may  unite 
with  any  one  of  the  ovarian  cells;  thus  constituting  four  groups 


green 

R  g 

yellow 

a  Y 

green 

a    g 

yellow 

R  Y 

green 

R  g 

yellow 

a  Y 

green 

a    g 

CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       57 


of  four.     And  these  groups  represent  the  combinations  (of  pollen 
and  ova)  capable  of  producing  individuals: 


RY - RY = RY 

RY -  R  g  =  RY 

RY -  aY  =  RY 

RY -  a  g  =  RY 


R g - RY = RY 

Rg  —  Rg  =  Rg 

R   g  -  a   Y  =  RY 

R  g  —  a    g  =  R  g 


aY - RY  =  RY 

aY  -  R  g  =  RY 

aY  -  a  Y  =  a  Y 

aY  -  a    g  =  a  Y 


a  g  -  RY  =  RY 
ag-Rg  =  Rg 
a  g  —  a  Y  =  a  Y 
a  g  —  a  g  =  a  g 


P< 


}O 


FIG.  8. 

Every  time  that  a  dominant  characteristic  encounters  a  reces- 
sive one  (R  with  a  or  Y  with  g),  it  overpowers  and  hides  it:  conse- 
quently the  results  of  the  different  combinations  are  quite  definitely 
limited  as  determining  forms  of  different  individuals.  In  fact, 
the  results  of  the  sixteen  combinations  are  as  follows: 


R  Y 

R  Y 

R  Y 

R  Y 

R  Y 

a  Y 

R  Y 

a  Y 

R  Y 

R  Y 

R  g 
R  Y 

R  g 
a  Y 

R  g 

a   g 

58  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

That  is  to  say,  the  only  forms  which  occur  are  the  following: 

RY,  Rg 

a   Y,  a  g 

whose  relative  probability  of  occurrence  is: 

RY 9  times  in  16  =  56.25% 

R  g, 3  times  in  16  =  18.75% 

a  Y 3  times  in  16  =  18.75% 

a    g 1  time   in  16  =    6.25% 

Now,  as  a  result  of  actual  experiment,  the  forms  obtained  show 
the  following  relative  percentage: 

Results  of  experiments  according  to  the  combinations 

with  plants  and  laws  of  probability 

R  Y  56.5%  56.25% 

R  g  19.75%  18.75% 

a  Y  18.2%  18.75% 

a    g  5.8%  6.25% 

The  correspondence  between  these  figures  is  close  enough  to 
warrant  the  acceptance  of  Mendel's  hypothesis  as  the  true  inter- 
pretation of  the  phenomena  that  are  shown  to  take  place  within  ths 
sexual  cells;  the  germinal  cells  of  the  hybrid  contain  potentialities 
belonging  to  one  or  the  other  only  of  the  parents,  and  not  to  both ; 
one-half  of  the  cells  contain  one  of  these  potentialities,  and  the 
other  half  the  other  potentiality. 

But  in  the  phenomena  of  hybridism,  we  have  seen  the  results 
of  another  fact  which  determines  Mendel's  third  law;  the  Law  of 
the  Independence  of  Characteristics. 

That  is,  that  while  the  original  progenitors  had  angular  seed 
and  green  cotyledons,  and  round  seed  and  yellow  cotyledons, 
certain  hybrid  plants  inherited  the  round  seed  of  the  one  and  the 
green  colour  of  the  other;  or  the  angular  seed  of  the  one  and  the 
yellow  colour  of  the  other.  In  the  same  way,  it  may  happen,  for 
example,  that  the  colour  of  one  plant  may  combine  with  the  height 
of  another,  etc.  That  is,  that  each  separate  characteristic  of  the 
progenitor  is  independent  and  may  combine  with  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  other  progenitor — even  to  the  point  of  separating  the 
colour  from  the  form,  as  in  the  case  cited. 

What  we  find  in  hybrids,  then,  is  not  a  separation  into  two 
types  of  generative  cells,  considered  as  united  and  complex  entities; 
but  every  separate  germ  cell  may  break  up  into  as  many  different 
potentialities  as  there  are  separate  characteristics  in  the  individual; 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       59 

and  that,  too,  not  only  as  regards  the  separate  minute  parts  of  the 
individual  body,  but,  within  the  same  organ,  as  regards  the  shape, 
colour,  character  of  the  surface,  etc. 

Such  phenomena  of  Mendelism  cannot  as  yet  be  generalised; 
yet  it  has  already  been  established  by  a  host  of  experiments  that 
a  great  number  of  characteristics  obey  the  laws  of  Mendel,  such, 
for  example,  as  the  character  of  the  hair  or  plumage;  the  gra- 
dations of  colour,  the  abundance  or  absence  of  hair;  physical 
malformations,  such  as  cerebral  hernia  in  poultry;  the  character 
of  locomotion,  as  in  the  jumping  mice:  and  even  normal  physio- 
logical attributes  connected  with  the  epoch  of  maturity  in  certain 
plants. 

But  the  manner  in  which  the  dominant  character  asserts  itself 
is  not  always  uniform.  There  are  times  when  a  fusion  of  antago- 
nistic characters  takes  place.  Thus,  for  example,  when  two  varie- 
ties of  the  mirabilis  jalapa  are  crossed,  one  having  red  flowers  and 
the  other  white,  a  fusion  of  the  colours  takes  place  in  the  first 
generation,  and  all  the  plants  have  pink  flowers.  In  the  second 
generation  we  get,  for  every  plant  with  red  flowers,  two  with  pink 
flowers  and  one  with  white.  That  is,  the  law  of  disjunction  has 
again  asserted  itself,  but  the  individual  hybrids  merge  their  antago- 
nistic attributes,  which  remain,  nevertheless  (as  their  differentiation 
proves),  separate  one  from  the  other  in  the  sexual  cells. 

Another  phenomenon  observed  in  individual  hybrids  is  the  in- 
termingling of  characteristics.  For  instance,  there  are  cases  where 
the  flowers  of  a  hybrid  produced  by  a  plant  with  red  flowers  and 
another  with  white  are  variegated  with  red  and  white  stripes. 

Accordingly,  the  transmission  of  antagonistic  attributes  through 
the  individual  may  be  divided  into  three  different  methods: 

Exclusive. 
Transmission  \   By  fusion. 

[   By  intermingling. 

In  the  first  case,  the  character  of  one  of  the  parents  is  trans- 
mitted intact ;  in  the  second,  the  formation  of  a  new  characteristic 
results,  constituting  a  form  more  or  less  nearly  midway  between 
those  from  which  it  comes  and  whose  fusion  it  represents;  in  the 
third  case  (which  is  very  rare  and  seems  to  obey  Mendel's  laws  in 
quite  an  uncertain  way),  the  result  is  a  mosaic  of  the  fundamental 
attributes. 


60  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Of  special  interest  to  us  are  the  two  first  methods  of  hereditary 
transmission  of  characteristics.  Even  before  Mendel's  discoveries, 
anthropologists  had  observed  that  in  the  intermixture  of  races 
certain  human  attributes  remained  distinct  while  others  merged. 
In  the  first  case  they  called  the  individuals  hybrids,  and  in  the 
second  case  they  called  them  metics.  Take,  for  example,  the  colour 
of  the  skin  when  black  and  white  merge  in  the  so-called  mulatto. 

Other  characteristics,  instead  of  merging,  intermingle,  as  for 
instance  those  that  are  internal  or  related  to  the  skeleton,  and  those 
that  are  external  or  related  to  the  soft  tissues  and  the  skin.  It 
may  happen,  for  example,  that  where  one  race  has  an  elongated 
head  and  black  hair  and  another  has  a  round  head  and  blond 
hair,  the  result  of  their  union  will  be  hybrids  with  elongated  heads 
and  blond  hair  or  vice  versa.  Similarly,  if  one  of  the  parents  is 
tall  of  stature  and  fair  complexioned,  and  the  other  of  short  stature 
with  a  dark  skin,  these  characteristics  may  be  interchanged  in  the 
hybrids.  A  very  common  occurrence,  as  regards  the  colour  of  the 
hair,  is  the  fusion  of  blond  and  brunette  into  chestnut;  while 
parents  with  chestnut  hair  may  have  either  fair-haired  or  dark- 
haired  children.  In  his  book  entitled  Human  Races  and  Varieties, 
Sergi  says  in  regard  to  hybridism:  "It  is  impossible  to  ignore 
human  hybridism,  which,  for  that  matter,  has  been  demonstrated 
under  various  forms  by  all  the  anthropologists;  America,  in  itself 
alone,  offers  us  a  true  example  of  experimental  anthropology  in 
regard  to  this  phenomenon.  Already  the  result  of  investigations 
shows  that  human  hybridism  is  multiform  among  all  the  peoples 
of  the  earth;  but  what  is  best  known  of  all  is  the  exchange  of 
external  characteristics  and  then*  intermingling  with  the  internal; 
that  is,  the  combination  of  external  characteristics  of  one  type 
with  internal  characteristics  of  another  type.  It  is  easy,  for  in- 
stance, to  find  cases  in  which  a  certain  colour  of  skin  and  hair,  with 
the  special  qualities  proper  to  them,  are  found  combined  with  pe- 
culiarities of  the  skeleton  that  do  not  rightfully  belong  to  types  of 
that  particular  colouring,  and  vice  versa;  and  this  same  phenom- 
enon may  be  observed  regarding  certain  separate  attributes,  and 
not  all  of  them — such  as.  the  stature,  or  the  face  with  its  outer 
covering  of  soft  tissues,  or  the  shape  of  the  skull  alone. 

"If  we  observe  our  European  populations,  that  call  themselves 
a  white-skinned  race,  but  whose  whiteness  has  many  different  gra- 
dations, we  are  convinced  of  the  great  intermixture  of  characters, 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       61 

and,  what  is  more,  a  varied  mixture  resulting  in  a  great  variety  of 
individual  types,  consisting  of  characters  differing  widely  from 
one  another.  It  requires  a  very  accurate  and  very  minute  analysis 
to  distinguish  the  different  elements  that  are  found  in  the  compo- 
sition of  ethnic  characters  in  individuals  and  peoples.  Undoubt- 
edly these  intermixtures  and  combinations  of  character  differ  in 
their  constituent  elements  and  in  the  number  of  such  elements  in 
the  different  nations,  according  to  whether  we  study  those  of  the 
south,  or  the  centre,  or  the  north  of  Europe;  and  this  results  from 
different  degrees  of  association  with  mongrel  races. 

"But  a  more  important  fact,  and  one  that  seems  to  have 
escaped  the  attention  of  anthropologists,  is  the  absence  of  fusion 
of  internal  and  external  characteristics  in  the  product  of  such  inter- 
mixture. We  find  only  a  positional  relationship  between  the  dif- 
ferent ethnic  elements,  a  syncretism  or  superposition  of  characteris- 
tics, and  a  consequent  readiness  to  disunite  and  form  other  unions. 
This  phenomenon  has  already  been  demonstrated  in  America,  on 
a  mass  of  evidence;  but  it  is  apparent  also  in  Europe,  among  the 
peoples  that  are  seemingly  most  homogeneous,  if  by  careful  obser- 
vation we  separate  the  characteristics  that  constitute  the  ethnic 
types;  and  not  only  the  types,  but  the  individuals  belonging  to 
the  different  peoples." 

And  in  the  following  passage,  Sergi  expresses  himself  still  more 
clearly : 

"From  my  many  observations,  it  follows,  further,  that  human 
hybridism,  or  meticism,  as  others  choose  to  call  it,  is  a  syncretism 
of  distinct  characteristics  of  great  variety,  and  that  these  do  not 
modify  the  skelital  structure  or  the  internal  characteristics,  ex- 
cepting by  way  of  individual  variation;  it  may  happen  that  sepa- 
rate parts  of  the  skeleton  itself  acquire  characteristics  peculiar  to 
themselves.  The  stature,  the  chest  formation,  the  proportion  of 
the  limbs,  may  all  be  in  perfect  correlation  and  be  united  with 
external  characteristics  of  diverse  forms,  as  for  instance  with  differ- 
ent forms  of  cranium,  or  the  cranium  may  be  associated  with  differ- 
ent facial  forms,  and  conversely.  Furthermore,  the  forms  adapted 
separately  and  in  part  in  hybrid  composition  remain  unvaried  in 
their  typical  formation.  The  face  retains  its  typical  characteristics 
in  spite  of  its  union  with  different  forms  of  cranium;  and  similarly 
the  cranium  preserves  its  architectural  structure  when  combined 
with  different  types  of  face.  The  stature  maintains  its  proper- 


62  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tions  in  spite  of  combinations  with  diverse  cranial  and  facial  types, 
and  in  spite  of  varied  colours  of  skin  and  hair." 

The  foregoing  page,  that  I  have  borrowed  from  this  masterly 
investigator,  is  most  eloquent  testimony  that,  in  regard  to  the 
phenomena  of  hybridism,  man  also  comes  within  the  scope  of 
Mendel's  laws.  There  is  something  wonderful  in  the  power  of 
observation  and  intuition  shown  by  Sergi,  who,  running  counter 
to  the  convictions  of  the  majority  of  anthropologists,  arrived 
through  these  conclusions  at  a  truth  the  key  to  which  was  destined 
to  be  discovered  later  on  through  studies,  very  far  removed  from 
anthropology,  such  as  were  pursued  by  the  botanists  Mendel  and 
De  Vries.  While  Mendel  was  led  by  his  experiments  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  laws  based  upon  his  ingenious  hypothesis,  Sergi  was 
drawn  simply  by  observation  to  conclusions  that  to-day  are  con- 
firmed by  experience.  And  from  difficult  observations  of  single 
characteristics  taken  separately,  Sergi  demonstrated,  in  his  ingenious 
studies,  their  persistence  through  innumerable  generations;  while, 
through  the  identification  of  separate  characteristics,  he  achieved 
that  brilliant  analysis  of  the  races  which  revealed  to  his  anthro- 
pological insight  that  the  European  varieties  of  man  originated 
among  the  peoples  of  Africa  and  Asia.  Unquestionably,  the  laws 
of  Mendel  confirm  what  hitherto  were  considered,  in  the  scientific 
world  of  Europe,  simply  as  the  individual  hypotheses  of  Sergi, 
but  which  American  anthropologists  recognise  and  welcome  as  a 
scientific  truth,  brilliantly  observed  and  expounded  by  the  Italian 
anthropologist. 

Thus,  through  single  characteristics,  through  particularities, 
we  may  read  the  origins  of  races;  and  recognise  which  are  the  con- 
stant characteristics  and  which  the  transitory  ones. 

Accordingly,  let  us  keep  these  principles  in  mind,  as  we  pro- 
ceed further  in  our  investigation  of  the  phenomena  of  heredity. 

Mendel's  laws,  however  much  they  may  be  discredited  or  illumi- 
nated by  further  experience,  serve  in  the  meanwhile  to  give  an 
absolutely  new  conception  of  the  individual  and  to  shed  light  upon 
many  obscure  problems  relating  to  heredity. 

The  individual  is  the  product  of  a  combination  of  germ  poten- 
tialities, which,  in  the  case  of  hybrids  (and  consequently  always  in 
the  case  of  man,  who  is  the  product  of  racial  intermixture),  meet 
in  accordance  with  the  mathematical  laws  of  probability.  One 
might  almost  conceive  of  a  formula,  or,  better  yet,  a  calculation, 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       63 

in  accordance  with  which  the  individual  resulting  from  any  given 
germs  might  be  predetermined;  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that 
the  calculations  would  become  infinitely  complicated  through 
the  multiplication  of  characteristics.  With  only  ten  pairs 
of  characteristics  it  is  already  possible  to  form  upward  of  1024 
kinds  of  germinal  cells  and  these  give  rise  to  1,000,000  different 
combinations. 

Furthermore,  through  the  law  of  dominant  characteristics,  the 
combinations  of  germs  would  produce  in  the  descendants  1000 
varieties  distinguishable  by  their  external  appearance,  and  60,000 
differing  only  internally,  that  is,  in  their  germinal  cells. 

There  remains,  however,  one  general  principle:  the  individual 
contains  not  only  his  personal  attributes,  but  also  other  attributes 
which  belonged  to  his  ancestors,  and  which  are  latent  in  him,  and 
may  reappear  in  his  descendants.  Consequently,  if  the  individual 
is  a  hybrid,  he  must  be  interpreted  not  only  through  himself  alone, 
but  through  the  history  of  his  family;  and  the  characteristics  which 
he  may  transmit  are  not  those  of  his  own  body,  but  those  of  his 
origin. 

The  individual  body  is  nothing  more  than  a  "temporary  ex- 
pression" of  those  germinal  characteristics  which  have  united  to 
give  it  consistency;  but  the  complex  transmission  of  character- 
istics rests  wholly  with  the  germinal  cells.  The  problem  of  heredity 
is  transferred  from  the  individual  and  from  the  series  of  individ- 
uals, who  are  simple  and  transitory  products  of  combinations,  to 
the  sexual  cells  and  their  potentialities.  And  this  is  unquestionably 
an  absolutely  new  scientific  concept,  and  a  revolutionary  one  as  well, 
capable  of  drawing  in  its  wake  a  lengthy  evolution  of  thought. 
Since  the  germinal  potentialities  determine  the  single  character- 
istics, they  may  be  considered  as  the  atoms  of  the  biologist.  "The 
field  of  investigation,"  says  Bateson,  "does  not  appear  to  differ 
greatly  from  that  which  was  opened  to  the  students  of  chemistry 
at  the  beginning  of  the  discovery  that  chemical  combinations  are 

governed  by  definite  laws In  the  same  way  that  the 

chemist  studies  the  properties  of  every  chemical  substance,  the 
characteristics  of  organisms  ought  to  be  studied,  and  their  com- 
position determined."  (First  Report,  p.  159). 

This  brings  us  to  two  widely  diverse  facts  that  demand  con- 
sideration: first,  the  subdivision  of  antagonistic  characteristics  in 
the  germinal  cells  that  form,  so  to  speak,  the  atomic  and  chaotic 


64  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

substratum  of  characteristics — characteristics  that  combine  accord- 
ing to  the  mathematical  laws  of  probability;  and,  secondly,  the 
dominance  of  characteristics,  or  else  their  fusion,  which,  independ- 
ently of  anything  that  may  happen  in  the  germinal  cells,  serves  to 
determine  and  define  the  individual. 

What  sort  of  characteristics  are  the  dominant  ones? 

According  to  the  latest  researches  of  Mendelism,  the  domi- 
nant characteristics  are  those  acquired  latest  in  the  course  of  evolu- 
tion, in  other  words,  the  youngest,  or,  if  you  prefer,  the  most  highly 
evolved.  Accordingly,  in  hybrids,  the  most  perfected  character- 
istics and  forms  are  the  ones  that  triumph  in  the  end. 

This  is  quite  a  new  principle.  Hitherto  it  was  held  that  the 
pure  species  or  race  was  the  most  perfect ;  and  the  hybrid  or  bastard 
was  under  a  cloud  of  contempt.  And,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  first 
crossings  of  different  races  may  result  in  some  combinations  lack- 
ing in  harmony,  and  calculated  to  sanction  the  old-time  conception 
of  the  aesthetic  inferiority  of  the  bastard. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  leave  time  for  new  generations  and  further 
crossings,  in  order  that  all  of  the  more  highly  evolved  characteristics 
may  unite  and  end  by  triumphing  in  reciprocal  harmony.  This 
the  followers  of  Mendel  cannot  yet  give  us,  because  it  would  require 
decades  or  centuries,  according  to  the  species,  to  produce  experi- 
mentally such  aesthetic  forms  of  hybridism. 

But  in  the  human  race  we  have  an  experiment  already  .accom- 
plished, which  actually  shows  us  the  cesthetic  triumph  achieved 
in  the  region  where  the  races  have  for  the  greatest  length  of  time 
been  crossed  and  recrossed,  through  the  agency  of  the  most  an- 
cient civilisation:  the  Europeans  surpass  in  physical  beauty  the 
people  of  any  other  continent;  and  the  Neo-Latin  races,  the  most 
ancient  hybrids  of  all,  seem  to  be  nearing  the  attainment  of  the 
greatest  aesthetic  perfection.  In  fact,  when  I  was  engaged  in 
compiling  an  anthropological  study  of  the  population  of  Latium, 
in  accordance  with  Sergi's  principles,  and  was  making  a  most 
minute  examination  of  all  the  different  characteristics  and  their 
prevalence,  as  a  possible  basis  for  a  delineation  of  the  fundamental 
racial  types,  I  found  that  complete  beauty  is  never  granted  to 
any  one  race,  but  distributed  among  different  races:  "as  a  result 
of  my  labours,  I  find  perfect  artistic  proportion  as  to  certain  facial 
features,  in  a  race  having  inferior  hands  and  feet;  and,  vice  versa, 
I  find  facial  irregularities  in  the  race  having  the  smallest  ex- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       65 

tremities,  and  the  most  artistically  proportioned  hands.  What  we 
now  consider  as  standards  of  human  beauty,  and  delight  in 
bringing  together  artificially  in  a  single  figure  in  a  work  of  art, 
are  found  in  nature  scattered  and  distributed  among  different 
races."  (See  Physical  Characteristics  of  Young  Women  of  Latium, 
p.  69.) 

Upon  the  combination  of  all  the  different  points  of  beauty  in 
a  single  individual  depend  Que"te"let's  biological  theories  of  the 
medial  man  (Phomme  moyen),  lately  revived  and  extensively 
developed  by  Viola.  The  new  importance  acquired  by  the  recon- 
struction of  the  medial  man  is  due  precisely  to  the  fact  that  the 
new  method  of  reconstructing  him  is  by  bringing  together  all  the 
single  characteristics  taken  separately  and  worked  out  mathemat- 
ically according  to  the  laws  of  individual  variations  that  behave 
precisely  like  those  of  probability.  (See  Biometry  and  the  Theory 
of  the  Medial  Man.) 

Viola  considers,  in  its  relation  to  the  physiological  laws  of 
health,  the  combination  in  a  single  individual  of  the  maximum 
number  of  average  characteristics,  which  at  the  same  time  are  the 
characteristics  numerically  prevalent  in  individuals  (dominant 
characteristics?).  The  man  who  accumulates  the  greater  number 
of  average  characteristics,  escapes  diseases  and  predisposition  to 
disease;  he  is  consequently  sounder  and  more  robust  and  hand- 
somer. De  Giovanni,  on  the  contrary,  through  an  ingenious 
conceit,  bestows  the  name  of  morphological  combination  upon  the 
union  in  a  single  individual,  of  parts  that  are  mutually  inharmonic 
and  incapable  of  performing  their  normal  functions  together,  in 
consequence  of  which  such  an  individual's  morphological  person- 
ality is  predisposed  to  special  maladies. 

Accordingly  the  meeting  and  union  of  germinative  poten- 
tialities may  be  either  more  or  less  propitious;  as  for  instance  the 
result  sometimes  produced  by  the  combination  of  a  platyopic 
(broad)  face  and  an  aquiline  and  extremely  leptorrhine  (narrow) 
nose;  in  other  words,  combinations  that  are  discordant  from  the 
aesthetic  standpoint,  but  harmless  as  regards  health ;  or  again,  there 
may  be  a  lack  of  harmony  between  the  internal  organs,  incom- 
patible with  a  healthy  constitution.  There  may  even  exist  mal- 
formations due  to  the  meeting  of  forms  that  clash  violently;  each 
of  which  parts  may  be  quite  normal,  when  considered  by  itself, 
but  cannot  adapt  itself  to  the  other  parts  with  which  it  is  united. 


66        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

It  is  as  though  the  dominant  characteristic  in  respect  to  an 
organ  had  been  overpowered  by  another,  which  ought  on  the 
contrary,  in  this  special  case,  to  have  been  recessive. 

It  is  precisely  on  this  question  of  the  dominance  of  charac- 
teristics that  the  researches  of  the  Mendelists  are  at  present  being 
expended.  It  has  been  observed  in  the  course  of  experiments 
that  there  exist  certain  special  correlations  between  potentialities, 
in  consequence  of  which  certain  characteristics  must  always  go 
together;  as,  for  example,  when  two  characteristics,  having  once 
been  united,  must  continue  to  recur  together,  although  they  each 
exist  separately.  These  laws,  which  are  not  yet  clearly  deter- 
mined, may  serve  to  explain  the  final  harmony  of  the  sum  total 
of  individual  attributes. 

But  in  general  the  dominance  of  characteristics  is  not  absolute, 
but  subject  to  many  causes  of  variation,  associated  with  environ- 
ment. Thus,  for  example,  just  as  a  change  in  nutrition  of  a 
young  plant  will  result  in  a  different  height,  it  is  also  possible  in 
the  mechanics  of  reproduction  that  the  original  relations  of  germs 
may  be  altered  by  external  causes,  and  the  dominant  character- 
istics be  made  recessive.*  Many  deviations  are  attributable  to  the 
influences  that  act  upon  the  germinative  cells  of  hybrids,  after 
the  latter  have  already  been  determined  in  their  potentiality; 
thus  for  example  when  certain  germinal  cells  are  less  resistant 
during  maturation;  or  again  when  combinations  between  poten- 
tialities are  difficult  to  achieve.  That  is  to  say,  there  may  exist 
certain  phenomena  associated  with  environment,  thanks  to  which 
Mendel's  natural  laws  concerning  the  dominance  of  character- 
istics may  become  inverted. 

Another  fact  of  great  significance  is  this :  that,  in  the  course  of 
extensive  experimental  plantings,  for  the  purpose  of  verifying  the 
laws  of  Mendel,  a  widespread  sickliness  and  mortality  occurred 
among  cryptograms,  at  the  expense  of  the  plants  of  recessive 
character;  which  would  go  to  prove  that  a  lower  power  of  resist- 
ance accompanies  the  appearance  of  recessive  characteristics. 
The  dominant  characteristics  accordingly  are  not  only  the  most 
highly  evolved,  but  they  also  possess  a  greater  power  of  resist- 
ance. So  that,  to-day,  the  dominance  of  the  strong  tends  through 
the  workings  of  the  phenomena  of  Mendelism,  to  do  away,  little 
by  little,  in  the  course  of  generations,  with  characteristics  that  are 

*  COKKENS:  Concerning  the  Laws  of  Heredity. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       67 

weak  or  antiquated.  This  has  an  important  bearing  upon  human 
pathology,  because  it  opens  the  way  to  hope  for  a  possible  regener- 
ation in  families  branded  with  hereditary  disease. 

The  germinal  potentialities  that  contain  beauty  and  strength 
seem  predestined  to  that  predominance  which  will  achieve  the 
triumph  of  life  in  the  individual.  To  learn  the  laws  of  the  union, 
in  one  individual  and  definitive  unity,  of  the  infinite  dominant 
and  recessive  potentialities  that  must  encounter  one  another  in 
the  mysterious  labyrinth  in  which  life  is  prepared — therein  lies 
the  greatest  problem  of  the  present  day. 

It  is  that  which  should  constitute  our  guiding  purpose. 


FORM  AND  TYPES  OF  STATURE 

The  Form. — Fundamental  Cannons  regarding  the  Form. — Types  of  Stature,  Macroscelia 
and  Brachyscelia;  their  physiological  Significance. — Types  of  Stature  in  relation  to 
Race,  Sex,  and  Age. 

A  few  years  ago,  when  anthropology  first  began  to  be  studied, 
the  skull  was  taken  as  the  point  of  departure;  because  in  the  ana- 
lytical study  of  the  human  body  it  represents  the  principal  part. 
Indeed,  the  same  thing  was  done  by  Lombroso,  when  he  applied 
anthropology  to  the  practice  of  psychiatry  and  later  to  the  study 
of  criminals.  It  is  a  matter  of  fact  that  degenerative  stigmata  of 
the  gravest  significance  are  to  be  found  associated  with  the  skull; 
and  this  he  could  not  fail  to  take  into  account,  because  of  its  bear- 
ings upon  criminal  anthropology. 

But  to-day  anthropology  is  reaching  out  into  vaster  fields  of 
science  and  striving  to  develop  in  diverse  directions,  such  as  those 
of  physiology  and  pathology;  and  revolting  from  the  collection  of 
degenerative  details,  it  undertakes  to  study  normal  man  in  regard 
to  his  external  form  as  related  to  his  functional  capacity,  or  else 
the  man  of  abnormal  constitution,  who  in  his  outward  form 
reveals  certain  predispositions  to  illness;  and  starting  on  these 
lines,  it  proposes  to  investigate  principally  the  metamorphoses  of 
growth,  through  the  successive  periods  of  life. 

From  this  new  point  of  view,  it  is  not  any  single  malformation, 
but  the  individual  as  a  whole  in  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  who 
assumes  first  importance.  The  study  of  the  cranium  (formerly 
so  important  as  to  be  the  basis  of  a  special  science,  craniology), 
becomes  only  one  detail  of  the  whole.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 


68  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

brain,  which  is  what  gives  the  cranium  its  importance,  is  not  only 
the  immediate  organ  of  intelligence,  but  it  is  also  the  psychomotor 
organ;  and  as  such  exercises  control  over  all  the  striped  muscles, 
and  is  morphologically  associated  with  the  development  and  the 
functional  powers  of  the  whole  body. 

It  follows  that,  the  larger  the  body,  the  bigger  brain  it  needs  to 
control  it,  independently  of  the  question  of  intelligence.  There- 
fore the  first  point  of  departure  should  be  eminently  synthetic, 
and  should  include  the  morphological  personality  considered  as  a 
whole. 

One  of  the  properties  of  living  bodies  is  that  of  attaining  a 
determinate  development,  whose  limits,  both  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  its  mass  and  the  harmony  of  its  form,  are  defined  by 
that  biological  final  cause  which  is  implanted  in  the  race  and  trans- 
mitted by  heredity.  Consequently  every  living  creature  has 
determinate  limits:  and  these  constitute  a  fundamental  biological 
property. 

The  causality  of  such  limits  has  not  yet  been  determined  by 
scientific  research;  nevertheless  it  is  a  phenomenon  over  which  we 
must  pause  to  meditate.  If  the  philosopher  pauses  to  contem- 
plate the  immensity  of  the  ocean  from  the  sea  shore,  marvelling 
that  the  interminable  and  impetuous  movement  of  the  waves 
should  have  such  exact  and  definite  limits  that  it  cannot  overpass 
by  so  much  as  a  metre  the  extreme  high-water  line  upon  the 
beach,  we  may  similarly  pause  to  meditate  upon  the  material 
limits  that  life  assumes  in  its  infinitely  varied  manifestations. 

From  the  microbe  to  the  mammal,  from  the  lichen  to  the  palm, 
all  living  creatures  have  inherited  these  limits,  which  permit  the 
zoologist  and  the  botanist  to  assign  to  each  a  measure  as  one  of  its 
descriptive  attributes. 

This  is  the  first  attribute  which  we  must  take  into  consideration 
in  the  study  of  anthropology:  namely,  the  mass  of  the  body,  and 
together  with  the  mass,  its  morphological  entirety.  The  Italian 
vocabulary  lacks  any  one  word  which  quite  expresses  this  idea, 
[and  in  this  respect  English  is  scarcely  more  fortunate*].  The 
stature  which  represents  to  us  the  most  synthetic  measure  of  the 
body  in  its  entirety  (a  measure  determined  by  the  vertical  linear 
distance  between  the  level  on  which  the  individual's  feet  are 
placed,  up  to  the  top  of  his  head  as  he  stands  erect),  does  not 

*  Translator's  note. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       69 

represent  the  entire  body  in  the  sense  above  indicated.  It  may 
rather  be  considered  as  a  linear  index  of  this  entirety.  The  French 
language,  on  the  contrary,  possesses  the  word  taille,  which  may  be 
rendered  in  Italian  by  the  word  taglia  [and  in  English  by  the  word 
form  *],  provided  that  we  understand  it  to  signify  the  conception  of 
the  whole  morphological  personality. 

No  single  measurement  can  express  the  form;  the  weight  of 
the  body,  indeed,  may  give  us  a  conception  of  the  mass  but  not 
of  the  shape;  and  the  latter,  if  it  needs  to  be  determined  in  all  its 
limits,  requires  a  series  of  measurements,  mutually  related,  and 
signifying  the  reciprocal  connection  and  harmony  of  the  part? 
with  the  whole;  in  other  words,  a  law.  We  may  establish  the 
following  measurements  as  adapted  to  determine  the  form,  in 
other  words,  as  fundamental  laws:  the  total  stature,  the  sitting 
stature,  the  total  spread  of  the  arms,  the  circumference  of  the  thorax, 
and  the  weight.  Of  these  measures,  the  two  of  chief  importance 
are  the  stature  and  the  weight,  because  they  express  the  linear 
index  and  the  volumetric  measure  of  the  entire  body.  The  other 
measurements,  on  the  contrary,  analyse  this  entirety  in  a  sweeping 
way:  thus,  the  sitting  stature,  in  its  relation  to  the  total  stature, 
indicates  the  reciprocal  proportions  between  the  bust  and  the 
lower  limbs;  the  perimeter  of  the  chest  records  the  transverse  and 
volumetric  development  of  the  bust;  and  the  total  spread  of  the 
arms  denotes  a  detail  that  is  highly  characteristic  in  the  case  of 
man:  the  development  of  the  upper  limbs,  which,  while  they 
correspond  to  organs  of  locomotion  in  the  lower  animals,  assume 
in  the  case  of  man  higher  functions,  as  organs  of  labour  and  of 
mimic  speech. 

Such  measurements  constitute  a  law,  because  they  are  in  con- 
stant mutual  relationship,  when  the  normal  human  organism  has 
reached  complete  development.  The  stature,  in  fact,  is  equal  to 
the  total  spread  of  the  arms;  the  circumference  of  the  thorax  is 
equal  to  one-half  the  stature,  and  the  sitting  stature  is  slightly 
greater  than  the  perimeter  of  the  chest.  As  regards  the  weight, 
it  cannot  be  in  direct  proportion  to  any  linear  measure;  neverthe- 
less, an  empirical  correspondence  in  figures  has  been  noted  that 
may  be  recorded  solely  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  memory: 
the  normal  adult  man  usually  weighs  as  many  kilograms  as  there 
are  centimetres  in  his  stature,  over  and  above  one  metre  (for 

*  Translator's  note. 


70  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

instance,  a  man  whose  height  is  1.60  metres  will  weigh  60  kilo- 
grams, etc.). 

To  make  these  laws  easier  to  understand,  we  may  resort  to 
signs  and  formulae.  Thus,  if  we  denote  the  stature  by  St,  the  total 
spread  of  the  arms  by  Ts,  the  circumference  of  the  thorax  by  Ct, 
the  essential  or  sitting  stature  by  Ss,  and  the  weight  by  W,  we 
may  set  down  the  following  formulae,  which  will  result  in  practice 
in  more  or  less  obvious  approximations: 

Of 

St=Ts;  CW—  ;  Ct  =  Ss 
And  for  the  weight,  the  following  wholly  empirical  formula: 


Stature.  —  Among  all  the  measurements  relating  to  the  form, 
the  principal  one  is  the  stature.  It  has  certain  characteristics  that 
are  essentially  human.  What  we  understand  by  stature  is  the 
height  of  a  living  animal,  when  standing  on  its  feet.  Let  us  com- 
pare the  stature  of  one  of  the  higher  mammals,  a  dog  for  instance, 
with  that  of  man.  The  stature  of  the  dog  is  determined  essen- 
tially by  the  length  of  its  legs,  while  the  spinal  column  is  supported 
in  a  horizontal  position  by  the  legs  themselves.  Such  is  the  atti- 
tude of  all  the  higher  mammals,  including  the  greater  number  of 
monkeys,  notwithstanding  that  these  latter  are  steadily  tending 
to  raise  their  spinal  column  in  an  oblique  direction,  in  proportion 
to  the  lengthening  of  their  fore-limbs,  which  serve  them  as  a 
support  in  walking  —  a  form  of  locomotion  half  way  between  that 
of  quadrupeds  and  of  man.  Man  alone  has  permanently  acquired 
an  erect  position,  that  renders  the  bust  (  =  sum  of  head  and  trunk) 
vertical,  and  leaves  the  upper  limbs  definitely  free  from  any 
duty  connected  with  locomotion,  thus  attaining  the  full  measure 
of  the  human  stature,  which  is  the  sum  of  the  bust  and  the  lower 
limbs.  Thus,  we  may  assert  that  one  fundamental  difference 
between  man  and  animals  consists  in  this  :  that  in  animals  the  spinal 
column  does  not  enter  into  the  computation  of  stature;  while  in 
man,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  included  in  its  entirety.  Consequently, 
in  man  the  stature  assumes  a  characteristic  and  fundamental  im- 
portance, because  part  of  it  (that  part  relating  to  the  bust)  rep- 
resents, as  a  linear  index,  all  the  organs  of  vegetative  life  and  of 
life  in  its  external  relations. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       71 


If  we  examine  the  human  skeleton  in  an  erect  position  (Fig.  9), 
it  shows  us  the  varying  importance  of  the  different  parts  of  its 
structure,  according  as  they  are  destined  to  protect,  or  simply  to 
sustain.  At  the  top  is  the  skull,  an  enclosed  bony  cavity;  and  this 
arrangement  indicates  that  it  is  designed  to  contain  and  protect 
an  organ  of  the  highest 
importance.  By  means 
of  the  occipital  foramen, 
this  cavity  communicates 
with  the  vertebral  canal, 
also  rigourously  closed, 
that  is  formed  by  the 
successive  juxtaposition 
of  the  vertebrae.  Such 
protective  formation  is 
in  accord  with  the  high 
physiological  significance 
and  the  delicate  structure 
of  the  organs  of  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system, 
which  represent  the  su- 
preme control  over  physi- 
ological life  and  over  the 
psychic  activities  of  life 
in  its  external  relations. 
Below  the  skull,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  skeleton  is 
profoundly  altered;  in 
fact,  the  framework  of 
the  thorax  is  a  sort  of 
bony  cage  open  at  the 
bottom;  still,  the  external 
arrangement  of  the  bones 
renders  them  highly  protective  to  the  organs  they  enclose,  namely, 
the  lungs  and  the  heart — physiological  centres,  whose  perpetual 
motion  seems  to  symbolise  the  rhythm  and  consequently  the  con- 
tinuity of  life. 

Continuing  to  descend,  we  come  to  a  sort  of  hollow  basin,  the 
pelvis,  which  seems  merely  to  contain,  rather  than  protect,  the 
abdominal  organs:  the  intestines,  kidneys,  etc.  Such  a  structure 


FIG.  9. 


72        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

seems  to  be  in  accord  with  the  minor  physiological  importance 
of  these  organs,  whose  function  (digestion)  is  periodic  and  may  be 
temporarily  suspended,  in  defiance  of  physiological  stimuli, 
without  suspension  of  life.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  skeleton,  on 
the  contrary,  the  arrangement  between  the  soft  and  bony  tissues 
is  inverted:  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs  constitute  the  inner  part; 
and  they  are  covered  over  with  thick,  striped  muscles,  organs  of 
mechanical  movement  for  the  purpose  of  locomotion.  Here  the 
function  of  the  skeleton  is  exclusively  that  of  support,  and  in  its 
mechanism  it  represents  a  series  of  levers. 

Accordingly,  the  structure  of  the  skeleton  also  shows  us  how 
the  stature  is  composed  of  parts  that  differ  profoundly  in  their 
physiological  significance;  life  as  a  complete  whole,  the  living  man, 
is  contained  within  the  bust,  which  holds  the  organs  of  the  individ- 
ual, vegetative  life;  those  of  life  in  relation  to  its  environment, 
and  those  of  life  in  relation  to  the  race,  namely,  the  organs  of 
reproduction. 

Deprived  of  arms  and  legs,  man  could  still  live;  the  limbs  are 
nothing  more  than  appendages  at  the  service  of  the  bust,  in  all 
animals;  they  serve  to  transport  the  bust,  that  is,  the  part  which 
constitutes  the  real  living  animal,  which  without  the  limbs  would 
be  as  motionless  as  a  vegetable,  unable  to  go  in  pursuit  of  nourish- 
ment or  to  exercise  sexual  selection. 

The  embryos  of  different  animals,  of  a  dog,  a  bat,  a  rabbit  and 
of  man  (as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  11)  show  that  the  fundamental 
part  of  the  body  is  the  spinal  column,  which  limits  and  includes 
the  whole  animal  in  the  process  of  formation. 

If  we  next  examine  the  embryonic  development  of  man,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  13,  we  may  easily  see  how  the  limbs  develop,  at  first 
as  almost  insignificant  appendages  of  the  trunk,  remaining  hidden 
within  the  curve  of  the  spinal  column;  and  even  in  an  advanced 
stage  of  development  (15th  week),  they  still  remain  quite  accessory 
parts  in  their  relation  to  the  whole. 

Having  established  these  very  obvious  principles,  we  may  ask 
ourselves :  of  two  men  of  equal  stature,  which  is  physiologically  the 
more  efficient?  Evidently,  that  one  of  the  two  who  has  the 
shorter  legs. 

In  other  words,  it  is  of  fundamental  importance  to  determine 
the  reciprocal  relation,  in  the  stature,  between  the  bust  and  the 


FIG.  10. — Gastrula  of  a  sponge. 
External  surface.  Internal  section. 

(Showing  the  inner  and  outer  primary 
layers,  and  the  mouth  orifice.) 


ffti 


FIG.  11. 
Dog.  Bat.  Rabbit. 

(From  the  work  by  E.  Haeckel:  Anthropogeny.) 


Man. 


Four  skeletons  of  anthropoid  apes. 


Fio.  12. 


Man. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       73 

lower  limbs,  that  is,  between  the  height  of  the  bust  and  the  total 
height  of  the  body. 

The  height  of  the  bust  was  called  by  Collignon  the  essential 
stature,  a  name  that  indicates  the  biological  significance  of  this 
measurement.  It  may,  however,  also  be  called  the  sitting  stature, 
from  the  method  of  taking  the  measure,  which  equals  the  vertical 
distance  from  the  level  on  which  the  individual  is  seated  to  the  top 
of  his  head.  The  other  is  the  total  stature. 

Accordingly,  in  anthropology  we  may  define  the  physiological 
efficiency  of  a  man  by  the  relation  existing  between  his  two  statures, 


FIG.  13. 
14  days,  3  weeks,  4  weeks,  etc.  (natural  size). 

the  total  and  the  essential.  If  we  reduce  the  total  stature  (which 
for  the  sake  of  brevity  we  will  call  simply  the  stature)  to  a  scale 
of  100,  we  find  that  the  essential  stature  very  slightly  exceeds  50, 
oscillating  between  53-54;  yet  it  may  fall  to  47  and  even  lower,  or 
it  may  rise  above  56.  In  such  cases  we  have  individuals  of  pro- 
foundly diverse  types,  whose  diversity  is  essentially  connected  with 
the  proportional  differences  between  the  several  parts  of  their 
stature. 

Hence,  we  may  distinguish  the  type  of  stature;  understanding 
by  this,  not  a  measure,  but  a  ratio  between  measures,  expressed  by 


74        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

a  number;  that  is,  "the  type  of  stature  is  the  name  given  to  the  ratio 
between  the  essential  stature  and  the  total  stature  reduced  to  a  scale 
of  100."  The  number  resulting  from  this  ratio,  since  it  indicates 
the  ratio  itself,  is  called  the  index  of  stature  (See  "Technical  Les- 
sons: on  the  Manner  of  Obtaining  and  Calculating  the  Indexes"). 
Manouvrier  has  distinguished  the  type  with  short  limbs  and  pre- 
ponderant trunk,  by  the  name  of  brachyscelous;  and  those  of  the 
opposite  type,  that  is,  with  long  legs,  by  the  name  of  macroscelous; 
reserving  the  term  mesatiscelous  to  designate  the  intermediate  type. 
These  types  differ  not  only  in  the  reciprocal  relation  between 
the  two  statures,  but  in  all  the  recognised  laws  of  the  form.  The 
brachyscelous  type  has  a  circumference  of  chest  in  excess  of  half 
the  stature,  because  the  trunk  is  more  greatly  developed  in  all  its 
dimensions;  and  the  total  weight  of  the  body  exceeds  the  normal 
proportion  in  relation  to  the  stature.  The  contrary  holds  true  of 
the  macroscelous  type;  their  trunk,  being  shorter,  is  also  narrower, 
and  the  circumference  of  the  chest  can  never  equal  one-half  the 
stature,  while  the  total  weight  of  the  body  is  below  the  normal. 

CANONS   OF    FOKM 

Passing  next  to  a  consideration  of  the  total  spread  of  the  arms, 
since  there  is  an  evident  correspondence  between  the  upper  and 
lower  limbs,  it  follows  that  in  the  brachyscelous  type  the  total 
spread  is  less  than  the  stature,  while  in  the  macroscelous  it  sur- 
passes it  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  according  to  the  grade  of 
type;  the  two  types  consequently  differ  in  the  level  reached  by 
the  wrist,  when  the  arms  are  allowed  to  hang  along  the  sides  of 
the  body. 

This  is  a  very  interesting  fact  to  establish,  since  at  one  time 
it  was  held  that  excessive  length  of  arm  was  an  atavistic  feature, 
in  other  words,  an  anthropoid  reminder.  To-day,  since  the  old 
interpretation  of  the  direct  descent  from  species  to  species  has 
been  abandoned  in  the  light  of  modern  theories  of  biological  evo- 
lution, we  can  no  longer  speak  of  atavistic  revivals.  It  is  true  that 
the  anthropoid  apes,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  13,  have  extremely 
long  forelimbs,  and  that  man  is  characterised  by  the  shortness 
of  his  arms,  free  to  perform  work  and  obedient  instruments  of 
his  brain.  But  if  it  happens  that  certain  individual  men  have 
excessively  long  arms,  even  if  they  should  coincide  with  an  inferior 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY      75 

capacity  for  work  and  social  adaptation,  such  a  simple  coincidence 
must  not  be  interpreted  by  the  laws  of  cause  and  effect.  The 
modern  theories  of  evolution  tend  to  admit  between  the  anthro- 
poid apes  and  man,  only  a  common  origin  from  lower  animals  not 
yet  fixed  in  a  determined  species.  So  that  in  phylogenesis  men 
are  not  considered  as  the  children  or  grandchildren  of  apes,  but 
rather  their  brothers  or  cousins  of  a  more  or  less  distant  degree; 
and  their  resemblance  must  be  attributed  to  a  parallel  evolution. 

Consequently,  it  is  not  possible  to  speak  of  direct  transmission 
of  characters. 

Therefore,  we  must  interpret  an  excessive  length  of  arm,  or 
an  excessive  shortness,  after  the  same  fashion,  namely,  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  type  of  stature,  or  to  the  established  canons  of  the  form — 
in  other  words,  as  a  detail  of  individual  human  types. 

Let  us  sum  up  the  three  canons  in  the  following  table: 


Mesatisceles 

Brachysceles 

Macrosceles 

St  =  Ts 

St  >  Ts 

St  <  Ts 

04 

St 

St 

SS    =T 

Ss  >^ 

bs  <   -77 

2 

2 

St 

St 

St 

Ct-f 

Ct>f 

Ct  <   73- 

W  =  K(St  -1  m.) 

W  >  K(St  -1m.) 

W  <  K(St  -  1  m.) 

From  these  measurements  are  derived  certain  types  of  individ- 
uality which  we  may  now  describe  in  detail. 

The  brachyscelous  type  has  an  excess  of  bust,  consequently  a 
preponderance  of  vegetative  life;  the  great  development  of  the 
abdominal  organs  tends  to  make  a  person  of  this  type  a  hearty 
eater,  a  man  addicted  to  all  the  pleasures  of  the  table;  his  big  heart, 
abundantly  irrigating  the  body,  keeps  his  complexion  constantly 
highly  coloured,  if  not  plethoric.  We  can  almost  see  this  man  of 
big  paunch,  corpulent,  with  an  ample  chest,  fat,  ruddy,  coarse, 
and  jolly;  an  excess  of  nutriment  and  of  blood-supply  are  favour- 
able to  the  ready  accumulation  of  adipose  tissue,  and  as  the  body 
constantly  grows  heavier  it  steadily  becomes  more  difficult  for  the 
undersized  legs  to  support  it ;  so  that  inevitably  this  man  will  tend 
to  become  sedentary,  and  he  will  select  a  well-spread  table  as  his 
favourite  spot  for  lingering.  Whatever  elements  of  the  ideal  the 


76  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

world  contains,  will  escape  the  attention  of  this  type  of  man,  who  is 
far  more  ready  to  understand  and  engage  in  commerce,  which  leads 
by  a  practical  way  to  the  solution  of  the  material  problems  of  life. 

In  the  other  type,  on  the  contrary,  the  macroscelous,  the  organs 
of  vegetative  life  are  insufficient  and  the  central  nervous  system 
is  defective.  Such  a  man  feels,  even  though  unconsciously,  that 
the  abdominal  organs  are  incapable  of  assimilating  sufficient 
nutriment,  and  that  his  lungs,  unable  to  take  in  the  needed  quan- 
tity of  oxygen,  render  his  breathing  labourious.  His  small  heart 
is  inadequate  for  circulating  the  blood  through  the  wholo  body, 
which  consequently  retains  an  habitual  pallor;  while  the  nervous 
system  is  in  a  constant  state  of  excitation.  We  can  almost  see 
this  man,  so  tall  and  thin  that  he  seems  to  be  walking  on  stilts, 
with  pallid,  hollow  cheeks  and  narrow  chest,  suffering  from  lack 
of  appetite  and  from  melancholia;  nervous,  incapable  of  steady 
productive  work  and  prone  to  dream  over  empty  visions  of  poetry 
and  art.  The  man  of  this  type  is  quite  likely  to  devote  his  entire 
life  to  a  platonic  love,  Or  to  conceive  the  idea  of  crowning  an  ideal 
love  by  committing  suicide;  and  so  long  as  he  lives  he  will  never 
succeed  in  escaping  from  the  anxieties  of  a  life  that  has  been  an 
economic  failure. 

It  is  interesting  to  examine  the  types  of  stature  from  different 
points  of  view :  such,  for  example,  as  the  height  of  stature,  the  race, 
the  sex,  the  age,  the  social  conditions,  the  pathological  deviations,  etc. 

The  Types  of  Stature  According  to  the  Height  of  the  Total  Stature. 
— There  exists  between  the  bust  and  the  limbs  a  primary  relation 
of  a  mechanical  nature,  already  well  known,  even  before  Manouvrier 
directed  the  attention  of  anthropologists  to  the  types  of  stature. 
When  one  individual  is  very  tall  and  another  is  very  short,  the 
consequence  of  this  fact  alone  is  that  the  taller  of  the  two  has  much 
longer  limbs  as  compared  with  the  shorter.  This  is  because, 
according  to  the  general  laws  of  mechanics,  the  bust  grows  less 
than  the  limbs  and  is  subject  to  less  variation. 

But  notwithstanding  this  general  fact,  other  conditions  intervene 
to  determine  the  comparative  relations  between  the  two  portions  of 
the  stature.  Indeed,  Manouvrier  exhibits,  within  his  own  school, 
specimens  of  equal  stature  but  of  different  types;  and  further- 
more, he  notes  that  the  inhabitants  of  Polynesia  are  of  tall  stature 
and  have  a  long  bust,  while  negroes,  who  are  also  of  tall  stature, 
have  a  short  bust. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       77 

Types  of  Stature  According  to  Race. — Among  the  character- 
istics of  racial  types,  present-day  anthropology  has  included  the 
reciprocal  proportions  between  the  two  statures.  This  means 
that  the  medium  type  in  the  different  races  is  not  always  contained 
within  the  same  limits  of  fluctuation  in  regard  to  stature :  but  some 
races  are  brachyscelous,  others  are  macroscelous,  and  still  again 
others  are  mesatiscelous.  The  most  brachyscelous  race  is  the  Mon- 
golian, prevalent  in  the  population  of  China;  the  most  macroscel- 
ous is  the  Australian  type  that  once  peopled  Tasmania.  Other 
races,  as  for  example  the  negroid,  while  in  a  measure  macroscelous, 
approach  nearer  to  the  mesatiscelous  type,  characteristic  of  the 
population  of  Europe.  Let  us  examine  the  psycho-ethnic  charac- 
ters of  these  various  peoples.  The  Chinese  are  the  founders  of 
the  most  ancient  of  all  oriental  civilisations,  and  have  established 
themselves  in  a  vast  empire,  solid  and  stable  in  its  proportions, 
as  well  as  in  the  level  of  its  civilisation.  It  would  seem  as  though 
the  Chinese  people,  having  accomplished  the  enormous  effort  of 
raising  themselves  to  a  determined  civic  level,  were  no  longer 
capable  of  advancement.  Individually,  they  have  a  singularly 
developed  spirit  of  discipline,  and  are  the  most  enduring  and 
faithful  workers;  it  is  well  known  that  in  America  the  Chinese 
Mongolian  does  not  fear  the  competition  of  labourers  of  any  other 
race,  because  no  others  can  compete  with  him  in  parsimony,  in 
simple  living,  and  in  unremitting  toil. 

The  Tasmanians  constituted  a  people  that  was  considered  as 
having  the  lowest  grade  of  civilisation  among  all  the  races  on  earth. 
Even  English  domination  failed  to  adapt  them  to  a  more  advanced 
environment,  and  their  race  was  consequently  scattered  and 
destroyed. 

Accordingly,  we  find  associated  with  extreme  macroscelia 
(Tasmanians)  an  incapacity  for  civic  evolution;  and  with  the 
corresponding  extreme  of  brachyscelia  an  insuperable  limitation 
to  civic  progress.  Consequently,  the  triumph  of  man  upon 
earth  cannot  bear  a  direct  relation  to  the  volume  of  the  bust, 
or  in  other  words,  we  cannot  assume  that  the  man  most  favour- 
ably endowed  on  the  physiological  side  is  the  one  who  has  the 
largest  proportion  of  viscera.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  con- 
quering race,  the  race  which  has  set  no  limit  to  the  territory  of 
its  empire  nor  to  the  progress  of  its  civilisation,  is  composed  of 
white  men,  whose  type  of  stature  is  mesatiscelous,  that  is  to  say, 


78  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

representative  of  harmony  between  its  parts.  This  conception 
will  serve  us  in  establishing  a  fundamental  principle  in  morpho- 
logical biology:  namely,  that  perfectibility  revolves  around  a 
centre,  which  represents  a  perfect  equilibrium  between  the  various 
parts  constituting  an  organism.  Hence,  in  order  to  determine  the 
deviations  of  the  individual  type,  we  must  always  start  from 
those  central  data,  which  represent,  as  the  case  may  be,  normality 
or  perfection. 

Even  among  the  populations  of  Europe,  and  within  the  Italian 
people  themselves,  fluctuations  occur  in  the  degree  of  mesati- 
scelia,  approaching  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  the  eccentric  forms  of 
brachyscelia  or  macroscelia;  and  such  fluctuations  are  an  attribute 
of  race. 

We  should  draw  a  distinction  between  a  people  and  a  race. 
The  term  race  refers  exclusively  to  a  biological  classification,  and 
corresponds  to  the  zoological  species.  On  the  other  hand,  we  mean 
by  a  people  a  group  of  human  individuals  bound  together  by 
political  ties.  Peoples  are  always  made  up  of  a  more  or  less  pro- 
found intermixture  of  races.  It  is  well  known  that  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  difficult  problems  of  ethnology  is  that  of  tracing 
out  the  original  types  of  races  in  peoples  that  represent  an  inter- 
mixture centuries  old.  Without  entering  too  deeply  into  this 
question,  which  lies  outside  of  our  present  purpose,  it  will  suffice  to 
point  out  that  in  the  people  of  Italy  it  is  possible  to  trace  types  of 
races  differing  from  one  another,  yet  so  closely  related  as  to  render 
them  apparently  so  similar  that  they  might  almost  be  regarded 
as  a  single  race. 

Now,  in  an  anthropological  study  of  mine  on  the  young  women 
of  Latium,  I  succeeded  in  tracing,  within  the  confines  of  that 
region,  different  racial  types  that  show  corresponding  differences 
in  degrees  of  mesatiscelia.  Thus,  for  example,  in  Castelli  Romani 
there  exists  in  an  almost  pure  state  a  dark-haired  race,  short  of 
stature,  slender,  elegantly  modelled  in  figure  and  in  profile,  and 
showing  within  the  limits  of  mesatiscelia  a  brachyscelous  tendency, 
in  contrast  with  another  race,  tall,  fair,  massive,  of  coarse  build, 
which  within  the  limits  of  mesatiscelia  shows  a  macroscelous 
tendency,  and  which  is  found  in  almost  pure  groups  around  the 
locality  of  Orte,  that  is,  on  the  boundaries  of  Umbria.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  the  importance  of  researches  in  ethnological 
anthropology  conducted  in  small  centres  of  habitation.  If  it  is 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       79 

still  possible  to  trace  out  groups  even  approaching  racial  purity, 
they  will  be  found  only  in  localities  offering  little  facility  to  emigra- 
tion and  to  the  consequent  intermixture  of  races.  The  fact  that 
we  still  find  in  Castelli  Romani  types  so  nearly  pure,  is  due  to  the 
isolation  of  this  region,  which  up  to  yesterday  was  still  in  such  primi- 
tive and  rare  communication  with  the  capital  as  to  permit  of  the 
survival  of  brigandage.  On  the  contrary,  in  localities  that  have 
attained  a  higher  civic  advancement,  and  in  which  the  inhabitants 
are  placed  in  favourable  economic  and  intellectual  conditions,  the 
facilities  of  travel  and  emigration  will  very  soon  effect  an  altera- 
tion in  the  anthropological  characters  of  the  race.  Hence  it 
would  be  impossible,  in  a  cosmopolitan  city  like  Rome,  to  accom- 
plish any  useful  studies  of  the  sort  that  I  accomplished  in  the 
district  of  Latium,  and  which  led  me  to  conclude  that  in  the  small 
and  slender  race  of  Castelli  Romani  we  may  trace  the  descendants 
of  the  ancient  conquerors  of  the  world:  descendants  that  belong 
to  one  variety  of  the  great  Mediterranean  race,  to  whom  we  owe 
the  historic  civilisations  of  Egypt,  Greece  and  Rome. 

It  would  seem  that  this  race,  disembarking  on  the  coast  of 
Latium,  must  have  driven  back,  among  the  Apennines,  the  other 
race,  blond  and  massive,  whose  pure-blooded  descendants  are  still 
found  in  numerical  prevalence  at  Orte,  an  ancient  mediaeval  town 
and  a  natural  fortress  from  the  remotest  times,  through  its  fortu- 
nate situation  on  the  crown  of  a  rocky  height,  that  easily  isolates 
it  from  the  surrounding  country  (see  the  ancient  history  of  the 
town  of  Orte). 

Accordingly,  within  the  limits  of  mesatiscelia,  it  appears  that 
the  race  which  in  early  times  won  the  victory  was  the  more  brachy- 
scelous,  i.e.,  the  one  which  had  the  larger  bust,  and  consequently 
the  larger  brain  and  vital  organs.  In  other  words,  within  the 
limits  of  normality,  brachyscelia  is  a  physiologically  favourable 
condition. 

Variations  of  Type  of  Stature  According  to  Social  Conditions.— 
Independently  of  race,  and  from  such  a  radically  different  point  of 
view  as  that  of  the  social  condition,  or  adaptation  to  environment, 
we  may  still  distinguish  brachyscelous  and  macroscelous  types. 
Brachysceles  may  readily  be  met  with  among  the  labouring  classes, 
habituated  from  childhood  to  hard  toil  in  a  standing  position, 
thus  interfering  with  a  free  development  of  the  long  bones  of  the 
lower  limbs;  while  the  macroscelous  type  will  be  found  among  the 


80  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

aristocratic  classes,  whose  members,  spending  much  time  sitting 
or  reclining,  give  the  long  bones  an  opportunity  to  attain  their 
growth  (mechanical  theories  of  stature).  Without  stopping  to 
discuss  the  suggested  causes  of  such  differentiation  in  types,  we 
may  nevertheless  point  out  that  the  brachyscelous  type  is  emi- 
nently useful  to  society,  constituting,  one  may  say,  the  principal 
source  of  economic  production,  while  the  macroscelous  and  unpro- 
ductive type  settles  comfortably  down  upon  the  other  like  a 
parasite.  But  the  progress  of  the  world  is  not  due  to  the  labour- 
ing class,  but  to  the  men  of  intellect,  among  whom  the  prevailing 
type  is  the  medium,  harmonic  type,  with  mesatiscelous  stature. 

Types  of  Stature  in  Art. — The  existence  of  these  different 
individual  types,  which  combine  a  definite  relationship  of  the 
parts  of  stature  with  the  complete  image  of  a  well-defined  indi- 
viduality, was  long  ago  perceived  by  the  eye,  or  rather  by  the 
delicate  intuition  of  certain  eminent  artists.  These  immor- 
talised their  several  ideals,  investing  now  the  one  type  and 
now  the  other  with  the  genius  of  their  art.  Thus,  for  example, 
Rubens  embodies  in  his  Flemish  canvases  the  brachyscelous  type, 
robust  and  jovial,  and  usually  represents  him  as  a  man  of  mighty 
appetite  revelling  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table. 

Botticelli,  on  the  contrary,  has  idealised  the  macroscelous 
type,  in  frail,  diaphanous,  almost  superhuman  forms,  that  seem, 
as  they  approach,  to  walk,  shadow-like,  upon  the  heads  of  flowers, 
without  bending  them  beneath  their  feet  and  without  leaving  any 
trace  of  their  passage.  Accordingly,  these  two  great  artists  have 
admirably  realised,  not  only  the  two  opposite  types  of  stature, 
but  also  the  psychic  and  moral  attributes  that  respectively  belong 
to  them.  But  it  was  not  granted  to  these  artists  to  achieve  the 
supreme  glory  of  representing  perfect  human  beauty  in  unsur- 
passed and  classic  masterpieces.  The  art  of  Greece  alone  succeeded 
in  embodying  in  statues  which  posterity  must  admire  but  cannot 
duplicate,  the  medial,  normal  type  of  the  perfect  man. 

Variations  of  Stature  According  to  Sex. — It  is  not  always  neces- 
sary to  interpret  the  type  of  stature  in  the  same  sense.  Even 
from  an  exclusively  biological  standpoint,  it  may  lend  itself  to 
profoundly  different  interpretations. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  type  of  stature  varies  normally 
according  to  the  sex.  Woman  is  more  brachyscelous  than  man; 
but  the  degree  of  brachyscelia  corresponds  to  a  larger  development 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       81 

of  the  lumbar  segment  of  the  spinal  column,  which  corresponds 
to  the  functions  of  maternity. 

In  fact  all  the  various  segments  of  the  spinal  column  show  different  propor- 
tions in  the  two  sexes. 

As  we  know,  the  spinal  column  consists  of  three  parts;  the  cervical  (correspond- 
ing to  the  neck),  the  thoracic  (corresponding  to  the  ribs),  and  the  abdominal, 
including  the  os  sacrum  and  the  coccyx. 

Now,  Manouvrier,  reducing  the  height  of  the  spinal  column  to  a  scale  of  100, 
expresses  the  relations  of  these  different  parts  in  the  two  sexes  as  follows : 


Segments 

Men 

Women 

Cervical  

22.1 

23  9 

Thoracic    

58.5 

55.4 

Lumbar 

11  4 

23  7 

Sacro-coccygeal  

7.9 

6.7 

In  woman  the  thoracic  segment  is  shorter  and  the  abdominal  is  longer  than  in 
man;  but  the  total  sum  in  woman  is  relatively  greater  in  proportion  to  the  whole 
stature. 

In  a  case  like  this  we  have  no  right  to  speak  of  a  morphological 
or  psychosocial  superiority  of  type;  nor  would  a  fact  of  this  sort 
have  any  weight,  for  example,  in  establishing  the  anthropological 
superiority  of  woman.  Nevertheless,  it  may  be  asserted  that,  if 
the  day  comes  when  woman,  having  entered  the  ranks  of  social 
workers,  shall  prove  that  she  is  socially  as  useful  as  man,  she  will 
still  be,  in  addition,  the  mother  of  the  species,  and  for  that  reason 
preeminently  the  greater  producer. 

Now,  it  is  beyond  question  that  this  indisputable  superiority 
is  in  direct  relation  with  the  type  of  stature.  But  without  insist- 
ing unduly  on  a  point  like  this,  we  should  note  the  connection 
between  the  brachyscelous  type  and  the  tendency  shown  by 
women  to  accumulate  nutritive  substances,  adipose  tissue;  con- 
sequently, as  compared  with  man,  she  is  the  more  corpulent — as 
are  all  brachysceles  as  compared  with  macrosceles. 

Types  of  Stature  at  Different  Ages. — Another  factor  that  influ- 
ences the  types  of  stature  is  the  age;  or  rather,  that  biological 
force  which  we  call  growth. 

Growth  is  not  an  augmentation  of  volume,  but  an  alteration 
in  form;  it  constitutes  the  ontogenetic  evolution,  the  development 


82 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


of  the  individual.  The  child,  as  it  grows,  is  transformed.  If  we 
compare  the  skeleton  of  a  new-born  child  with  that  of  an  adult, 
we  discover  profound  differences  between  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  different  parts.  The  child's  head  is  enormously  larger 
than  that  of  the  adult  in  proportion  to  its  stature;  and  similarly, 
the  chest  measure  is  notably  greater  in  the  child.  If  we  wish  to 
compare  the  fundamental  measurements  of  the  new-born  infant 
with  those  of  the  adult,  we  get  the  following  figures,  on  a  basis  of 
100  for  the  total  stature : 


Adult 

Child  at  birth 

Total  stature 

Essential  stature  

52 

68 

=  100 

Perimeter  of  thorax.  .  .  . 
Height  of  head  

50 
10 

70 
20 

8 

4o 
Z 

6 

8 

50 

I 

j 
2 

4- 

6 

1 

6 

a 

1 

4 

* 

yw 


/    S  3  4  6  6 


7  8  9 
Fio.  14. 


//  72 


Accordingly,  the 
child  has  to  acquire, 
in  the  course  of  its 
growth,  not  only  the 
dimensions  of  the 
adult,  but  the  har- 
mony of  his  forms; 
that  is,  it  must  reach 
not  only  certain  de- 
termined limits  of 
dimension,  but  also  a 
certain  type  of  beauty. 

Among  the  funda- 
mental differences  be- 
tween the  new-born 
child  and  the  adult 
one  of  the  first  to  be 
noted  is  the  reciprocal 
difference  of  propor- 
tion between  the  two 
statures.  The  child 
is  ultrabrachyscelous, 
that  is,  he  presents  a 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       83 

type  of  exaggerated  brachyscelia,  calling  to  mind  the  form  of  the 
human  fcetus,  in  which  the  limbs  appear  as  little  appendages  of 
the  trunk.  In  the  course  of  growth,  a  successive  alteration  takes 
place  between  the  reciprocal  proportions  of  the  two  parts,  so 
that  the  lower  limbs,  growing  faster  than  the  bust,  tend  to  ap- 
proach the  total  length  of  the  latter.  Godin  has  noted  that 
during  the  years  before  puberty  the  lower  limbs  acquire  greater 
dimensions,  as  compared  with  the  bust,  than  are  found  in  the 
fully  developed  individual ;  in  other  words,  at  this  period  a  rapid 
growth  takes  place  in  the  long  bones  of  the  lower  limbs,  and 
accordingly  at  this  period  of  his  life  the  individual  passes  through 
a  stage  of  the  macroscelous  type.  Immediately  after  puberty, 
there  begins,  in  turn,  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the  bust,  which 
regains  its  normal  excess  over  the  lower  limbs,  thus  attaining  the 
definite  normal  type  of  the  adult  individual.  After  the  age  of 
17  years,  by  which  time  these  metamorphoses  have  been  com- 
pleted, the  individual  may  increase  in  stature,  but  the  propor- 
tions between  the  parts  will  remain  unaltered.  In  Fig.  14  we 
have  a  graphic  representation  of  the  relative  proportions  between 
the  height  of  the  bust  and  the  length  of  limbs  at  different  ages, 
the  total  stature  being  in  every  case  reduced  to  100.  The  upper 
portion  of  the  lines  represents  the  bust,  and  the  lower  portion 
the  limbs,  while  the  transverse  line  corresponding  to  the  number 
50  indicates  one-half  of  the  total  stature.  From  such  a  table,  it 
is  easy  to  see  how  the  bust,  enormously  in  excess  of  the  limbs  at 
birth,  gradually  loses  its  preponderance. 

It  was  drawn  up  from  the  following  figures  calculated  by  me: 


TYPES  OF  STATURE  ACCORDING  TO  AGE  IN  YEARS 


At  birth 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

68 

65 

63 

62 

60 

59 

57 

56 

55 

55 

54 

53 

53 

52 

52 

51 

51 

52 

Godin  furnishes  the  following  figures,  relating  to  the  type  of 
stature  at  the  period  preceding  and  following  puberty: 


84 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


RATIO  OF  SITTING  STATURE  TO  TOTAL  STATURE  REDUCED  TO  SCALE 

OF  100  (GODIN) 


Age  

13  1/2 

14 

14  1/2 

15 

15  1/2 

16 

16  1/2 

17 

17  1/2 

Ratio  .  .  . 

52 

52 

51 

51 

51 

52 

52 

52 

52 

Hrdlicka  has  calculated  the  index  of  stature  for  a  thousand  white 
American  children  and  a  hundred  coloured,  of  both  sexes,  and 
has  obtained  the  following  figures,  some  of  which,  based  upon  an 
adequate  number  of  subjects,  (10-13  years)  are  what  were  to  be 
expected,  while  others,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  subjects  (under 
6  and  above  15  years)  are  far  less  satisfactory: 


PROPORTION   BETWEEN   THE   SITTING   STATURE   AND   THE   TOTAL 

STATURE 

(AMERICAN    CHILDREN) 


Age  in 

years 

Number  of 
subjects  of 
each  age 

Males, 
white 

Females, 
white 

Number  of 
subjects  of 
each  age 

Males, 
coloured 

Females, 
coloured 

3 

1 

60.8 

59.5 

4 

— 

— 

— 

1 

— 

58.9 

5 

2 

57.4 

57.3 

3 

57.3 

57.9 

6 

15 

56.6 

57.4 

5 

55.9 

55.6 

7 

38 

56.3 

57.2 

5 

54.9 

55.4 

8 

56 

55.9 

56.2 

13 

55.1 

53.3 

9 

62 

55.2 

55.9 

25 

54.2 

54.1 

10 

98 

54.6 

54.2 

12 

54.9 

53.7 

11 

99 

54.0 

55.0 

12 

52.8 

53.8 

12 

93 

53.5 

54.1 

10 

57.7 

54.0 

13 

86 

52.9 

53.8 

13 

52.9 

51.9 

14 

53 

52.7 

54.1 

7 

52.3 

51.8 

15 

20 

53.1 

53.7 

6 

51.7 

53.0 

16 

9 

52.0 

55.0 

2 

53.0 

— 

17 

3 

52.2 

54.7 

— 

— 

— 

Which  goes  to  prove  (in  spite  of  the  inaccuracies  due  to  the 
numerical  scarcity  of  coloured  subjects  of  any  age)  that  the  females 
are  more  brachyscelous  than  the  males;  and  that  the  blacks  are 
more  macroscelous  than  the  whites. 

The  above  table  of  indices  of  stature  was  worked  out  by 
Hrdlicka  from  the  following  measurements : 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       85 

SITTING  STATURE 


Age  iu 
years 

Males, 
white 

Females, 
white 

Males, 
coloured 

Females, 
coloured 

3 

476 

476 

4 

— 

— 

— 

534 

5 

551 

576 

597 

571 

6 

595 

608 

616 

607 

7 

631 

621 

630 

625 

8 

644 

635 

659 

671 

9 

672 

663 

679 

680 

10 

684 

687 

697 

695 

11 

711 

718 

718 

703 

12 

728 

734 

797 

792 

13 

751 

770 

737 

767 

14 

764 

809 

787 

808 

15 

777 

825 

753 

819 

16 

839 

824 

795 

— 

17 

864 

850 

— 

— 

TOTAL  STATURE 


Age  in 
years 

Males, 
white 

Females, 
white 

Males, 
coloured 

Females, 
coloured 

3 

783 

839 

4 

— 

— 

— 

906 

5 

961 

1004 

1044 

985 

6 

1051 

1060 

1101 

1091 

7 

1120 

1086 

1147 

1127 

8 

1152 

1130 

1196 

1260 

9 

1212 

1187 

1251 

1257 

10 

1248 

1267 

1271 

1295 

11 

1315 

1304 

1360 

1307 

12 

1362 

1357 

1381 

1467 

13 

1420 

1431 

1392 

1477 

14 

1449 

1495 

1505 

1559 

15 

1462 

1535 

1455 

1545 

16 

'1615 

1498 

1500 

— 

17 

1654 

— 

— 

— 

18 

— 

1554 

— 

~ 

The  following  chart,  prepared  by  MacDonald,  on  the  growth 
of  the  total  stature  and  the  sitting  stature  of  male  white  children, 


86 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


born  in  America,  gives  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  rhythm  of  each  of 
the  two  statures.  The  sitting  stature  increases  quite  slowly, 
and  its  greatest  rate  of  growth  is  immediately  after  puberty 
(from  15  to  17  years)  (Fig.  15) 

Mac   Donald. 


777 

M 

75; 

m 

71! 

ftn 

6K 

a 

m 

&v 

;»' 

^ 

' 

.  .,y 

—  j 

/ 

/ 

/ 

re 

^x 

/ 

c. 

to\ 

7 

/ 

^ 

^ 

/ 

I 

<$ 

i^x 

? 

7 

y 

/ 

<*• 

y 

/ 

1359 

1327 
1282 

1227 
117O 
1112 

•••^H 

Agt 

/ 

/ 

y 

/ 

/ 

^ 

/ 

3 

r 

/. 

/ 

^ 

/ 

I 

/ 

/ 

s 

>6     7     S     9    10   11    12    13    #     15    16    17 

FIG.  15. 

Lastly,  in  order  to  make  this  phenomenon  still  more  clear,  I 
have  reproduced  an  illustration  given  by  Stratz,  consisting  of  a 
series  of  outlined  bodies  of  children  representing  the  proportions 
of  the  body  at  different  stages  of  growth;  and  not  only  the  pro- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       87 

portions  between  the  bust  and  the  lower  limbs,  but  also  between 
the  various  component  parts  of  the  bust,  as  for  instance  the  head 
and  trunk.  The  transverse  lines  indicate  the  changes  in  the  prin- 
cipal levels:  the  head,  the  mammary  glands,  and  the  bust 
(Fig.  16). 

The  different  types  of  stature  at  different  ages  deserve  our 
most  careful  consideration,  yet  not  from  the  point  of  view  already 
set  forth  regarding  the  different  types  in  the  fully  developed 
individual.  In  the  present  case  for  instance,  we  cannot  say  of  a 


FIG.  16. 


youth  of  sixteen  that,  because  he  is  macroscelous  he  is  a  weakling 
as  compared  with  a  boy  of  ten  who  is  brachyscelous ;  nor  that  a 
new-born  child  represents  the  maximum  physical  potentiality, 
because  he  is  ultra-brachyscelous.  Our  standards  must  be  com- 
pletely altered,  when  we  come  to  consider  the  various  types  as 
stages  of  transition  between  two  normal  forms,  representing  the 
evolution  from  one  to  the  other.  At  each  age  we  observe  not 
only  different  proportions  between  the  two  fundamental  parts  of 
the  stature,  but  physiological  characteristics  as  well,  biological 
signs  of  predispositions  to  certain  determined  maladies,  and 
psychological  characteristics  differing  from  one  another,  and  each 


88        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

typical  of  a  particular  age.  From  the  purely  physical  and  mor- 
phological point  of  view,  for  example,  a  child  from  its  birth  up  to 
its  second  year,  the  period  of  maximum  brachyscelia  and  con- 
sequent visceral  predominance,  is  essentially  a  feeding  animal. 
After  this  begins  the  development  of  psychic  life,  until  finally, 
just  before  the  attainment  of  full  normal  proportions,  the  function 
of  reproduction  is  established,  entailing  certain  definite  character- 
istics upon  the  adult  man  or  woman.  In  accordance  with  its 
type  of  stature,  we  see  that  the  child  from  its  birth  to  the  end  of 
the  first  year  shows  a  maximum  development  of  the  adipose  system 
together  with  a  preponderance  of  the  digestive  organs;  while  the 
adolescent,  in  the  period  preceding  puberty,  shows  in  accordance 
with  his  macroscelous  type  of  stature,  and  reduction  in  the 
relative  proportion  of  his  visceral  organs,  a  characteristic  loss  of 
flesh. 

These  evolutionary  changes  in  the  course  of  growth  having 
been  once  established,  it  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  individual 
variations.  The  alterations  observed  at  the  various  ages,  or 
rather,  the  notable  characteristics  of  each  age,  serve  as  so  many 
fundamental  charts  of  the  normal  average  child;  and  we  may  con- 
sider each  successive  type  of  stature,  from  the  new-born  infant  to  the 
adult  man,  in  the  same  light  as  we  do  the  average  type  of  the 
mature  mesatiscelous  type.  In  the  case  of  the  latter,  we  found 
that  both  above  and  below  the  medium  stature,  there  were  a 
host  of  individual  types  departing  more  or  less  widely  from  it, 
and  tending  toward  brachyscelia  on  the  one  hand  and  toward 
macroscelia  on  the  other,  thus  constituting  the  oscillations  of 
type  in  the  individual  varieties.  Similarly,  in  the  case  of  the 
medium  type  of  each  successive  age  we  may  find  brachyscelous 
or  macroscelous  individuals  whose  complex  personal  character- 
istics may  be  compared  to  those  already  observed  in  the  adult, 
and  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  that  the  macroscele  is  a  weak- 
ling; and  that  the  brachyscele  may  be,  according  to  the 
degree  of  variation,  either  a  robust  individual  or  an  individual  that 
has  been  arrested  in  his  morphological  development,  and  retained 
the  type  of  a  younger  age. 

Pedagogic  Considerations. — From  the  above  conclusion,  we 
may  deduce  certain  principles  that  can  be  profitably  applied  to 
pedagogy,  especially  in  regard  to  some  of  the  methods  suited  to 
our  guidance  in  the  physical  education  of  children.  Let  us  begin 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       89 

with  the  happy  comparison  drawn  by  Manouvrier,  who  describes 
an  imaginary  duel  with  swords  between  a  macroscelous  and  a 
brachyscelous  type.  The  duel,  according  to  social  conventions, 
must  take  place  under  equal  conditions:  hence  the  seconds  take 
rigorous  care  in  measuring  the  ground,  the  length  of  the  swords, 
and  determine  the  number  of  paces  permitted  to  the  duelists. 
But  since  they  have  forgotten  the  anthropologic  side,  the  con- 
ditions are  not  entirely  equal :  by  having  a  longer  arm,  the  macro- 
scele  is  in  the  same  position  as  though  he  had  a  longer  sword;  and 
because  he  has  a  greater  development  of  the  lower  limbs,  the 
established  number  of  strides  will  take  him  over  a  greater  space 
of  ground  than  his  adversary.  Consequently,  the  conditions  as  a 
matter  of  fact  are  so  favourable  to  the  macroscele,  that  is,  to  the 
weaker  individual,  that  the  latter  has  a  greater  chance  of  victory. 
The  brachyscele  might,  to  be  sure,  offset  this  by  a  different 
manoeuvre  depending  on  his  superior  agility;  but  both  he  and  the 
macroscele  were  trained  in  the  same  identical  method,  which 
takes  into  consideration  only  the  external  factor,  the  arms  of 
defence,  and  the  immutable  laws  of  chivalry. 

Well,  something  quite  similar  happens  in  the  duel  of  life, 
which  is  waged  in  school  and  in  the  outside  social  environment. 
We  ignore  individual  differences,  and  concern  ourselves  solely 
with  the  means  of  education,  considering  that  they  are  just, 
so  long  as  they  are  equal  for  all.  The  fencing-master,  if  he  had 
been  an  anthropologist,  might  have  counteracted  the  probability 
that  the  stronger  pupil  would  be  beaten  by  the  weaker,  by  advising 
the  brachyscele  always  to  choose  a  pistol  in  place  of  a  sword,  or 
by  teaching  him  some  manoeuvre  entirely  different  from  that 
which  affords  the  macroscele  a  favourable  preparation  for  fencing. 
And  in  the  same  way,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  school-teacher  to  select 
the  arms  best  adapted  to  lead  his  pupil  on  to  victory. 

That  is,  the  teacher  ought  to  make  the  anthropological  study 
of  the  pupil  precede  his  education;  he  should  prepare  him  for 
whatever  he  is  best  adapted  for,  and  should  indicate  to  him 
the  paths  that  are  best  for  him  to  follow,  in  the  struggle  for 
existence. 

But,  aside  from  general  considerations,  we  may  point  out  that 
something  very  similar  to  the  above-mentioned  duel  takes  place 
in  school  when,  in  the  course  of  gymnastic  exercises,  we  make  the 
children  march,  arranging  them  according  to  their  total  height. 


90  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

We  expect  them  to  march  evenly  and  walk,  not  run,  yet  we  do 
not  trouble  to  ask  whether  their  legs  are  of  equal  length.  When  we 
wish  to  know  which  of  our  pupils  is  the  swiftest  runner,  we  start 
them  all  together,  macrosceles  and  brachysceles  alike,  neglecting 
to  measure  their  lower  limbs,  the  weight  of  their  bodies,  the 
circumference  of  their  chests.  Then  we  say  " bravo!"  to  the 
macroscele,  that  is,  the  pupil  who  is  most  agile  but  at  the  same  time 
the  weakest,  and  we  encourage  him  in  a  pride  based  upon  a  physi- 
ological inferiority.  When  we  practise  exercises  of  endurance, 
we  find  that  certain  children  weary  sooner,  suffer  from  shortness 
of  breath,  and  frequently  drop  out  of  the  contest,  in  which  the 
victory  is  reserved  for  others.  The  latter  are  the  brachysceles, 
who  have  big  lungs  and  a  robust  heart  at  their  disposal.  In  this 
case  we  say  "bravo!"  to  the  brachysceles.  Then  we  try  to  arouse 
a  noble  rivalry  between  the  two  types,  encouraging  emulation, 
and  holding  up  before  the  brachyscele  the  example  of  the  macro- 
scele's  agility,  and  before  the  macroscele  the  example  of  the 
brachyscele' s  endurance — and  perhaps  we  reward  the  two  types 
with  different  medals.  Such  decisions  by  the  teacher  evidently 
have  no  such  foundation  in  justice  as  he  supposes;  the  diverse 
abilities  of  the  two  types  of  children  are  associated  with  the  con- 
stitution of  their  organisms.  A  modern  teacher  ought  instead  to 
subject  the  brachyscelous  child  to  exercises  adapted  to  develop 
his  length  of  limb,  and  the  macroscelous  to  gymnastics  that  will 
increase  the  development  of  his  chest ;  and  he  will  abstain  from  all 
praise,  reward,  exhortation  and  emulation,  that  have  for  their  sole 
basis  the  pupil's  complete  anthropological  inefficiency. 

"  The  judgment  passed  by  the  teacher  in  assigning  rewards  and 
punishments  is  often  an  unconscious  diagnosis  of  the  child's 
anthropological  personality." 

Similar  unconscious  judgments  are  exceedingly  widespread. 
Manouvrier  gives  a  brilliant  exposition  of  them  in  the  course  of 
his  general  considerations  regarding  the  macroscelous  and  brachy- 
scelous types.  A  brachyscelous  ballet-dancer,  all  grace  and  endur- 
ance in  her  dancing,  thanks  to  the  strength  of  her  lungs,  can  never 
be  imitated  in  her  movements  by  a  macroscelous,  angular  woman, 
with  legs  ungracefully  long.  The  latter,  on  the  contrary,  wrapped 
in  a  mantle,  may  become  the  incarnation  of  a  stately  matron,  ex- 
tending her  long  arms  in  majestic  gestures.  Yet  it  often  happens 
that  the  stately  actress  envies  and  seeks  to  imitate  the  grace  of 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       91 

the  dancer,  while  the  latter  envies  and  emulates  the  grave  dignity 
of  the  actress. 

In  any  private  drawing-room  the  same  thing  occurs,  in  the 
shape  of  different  advantages  distributed  among  persons  of  differ- 
ent types.  There  are  some  gestures  that  are  inimitable  because  they 
are  associated  with  a  certain  anthropologic  personality.  Every  one 
in  the  world  ought  to  do  the  things  for  which  he  is  specially 
adapted.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  recognise  what  each  one  of  us 
is  best  fitted  for,  and  it  is  the  part  of  education  to  perfect  and  utilise 
such  predispositions.  Because  education  can  direct  and  aid  nature, 
but  can  never  transform  her. 

Manouvrier  is  constantly  observing  how  the  macroscelous  and 
brachyscelous  types  are  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  social  labour; 
thus,  for  example,  the  macroscele  will  make  an  excellent  reaper, 
because  of  the  wide  sweep  of  his  arms,  and  he  is  well  adapted  to  be 
a  tiller  of  the  soil;  while  the  brachyscele,  on  the  contrary,  will 
succeed  admirably  in  employment  that  requires  continuous  and 
energetic  effort,  such  as  lifting  weights,  hammering  on  an  anvil, 
or  tending  the  work  of  a  machine. 

In  the  social  evolution  now  taking  place,  the  services  of  the 
macrosceles  are  steadily  becoming  less  necessary;  intensive  modern 
labour  requires  the  short,  robust  arm  of  the  brachyscele.  Such 
considerations  ought  not  to  escape  the  notice  of  the  teacher,  who 
sees  in  the  boy  the  future  man.  He  has  the  high  mission  of  pre- 
paring the  duelists  of  life  for  victory,  by  now  correcting  and  again 
aiding  the  nature  of  each.  And  the  first  point  of  departure  is 
undoubtedly  to  learn  to  know,  in  each  case  le  physique  du  role. 

ABNORMAL  TYPES  OF  STATURE  AND  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF 
BIOLOGICAL  ETHICS 

Abnormal  types  of  stature  in  their  relation  to  moral  training. — Macroscelia  and  brachy- 
scelia  in  pathologic  individuals  (DE  GIOVANNI'S  hyposthenic  and  hypersthenic  types). — 
Types  of  stature  in  emotional  criminals  and  in  parasites. — Extreme  types  of  stature 
among  the  extrasocial  classes:  Nanism  and  gigantism. 

Let  us  start  from  a  picture  traced  in  the  course  of  the  preceding 
lessons;  the  types  of  stature  as  related  to  race.  The  Chinese, 
being  brachyscelous,  ought  to  be  hearty  eaters;  instead,  they  are 
the  most  sparing  people  on  earth.  Such  parsimony,  equally  with 
religion  and  social  morality,  may  be  considered  as  a  racial  obli- 
gation. The  whole  life  of  the  Chinese  is  founded  upon  duty: 


92  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

fidelity  to  religion,  to  the  laws,  to  the  spirit  of  discipline,  to  the 
spirit  of  sacrifice,  which  always  finds  the  Chinese  citizen  ready  to 
die  for  his  ethics  and  for  his  country,  are  strong  characteristics 
of  these  invincible  men.  Their  whole  education  rests  solely  upon 
a  mnemonic  basis;  and  their  laws,  which  are  highly  democratic, 
make  it  possible  for  anyone  to  rise  to  the  highest  circles,  pro- 
vided he  can  pass  the  competitive  examinations.  In  other  words, 
the  laws  aid  in  the  natural  selection  of  the  really  strong,  and  regard 
favouritism  as  a  crime  against  the  State.  On  such  individual  and 
national  virtues  is  founded  the  survival  of  the  race  and  of  the 
massive  empire.  If  tomorrow  the  Chinese  should  renounce  his 
creed,  become  a  glutton,  a  pleasure-seeker,  and  follow  the  instincts 
of  nature,  he  would  be  advancing  in  mighty  strides  on  the  path 
that  leads  to  death.  Accordingly,  what  we  call  virtue  may  have  a 
biologic  basis,  and  represent  the  active  force  that  tends  to  correct 
the  defects  of  nature. 

We  can  conceive  of  a  type  of  man,  whose  life  is  associated  with 
sacrifice;  and  whose  path  of  evolution  is  necessarily  limited,  first 
because  his  personality  is  imperfect,  secondly  because  a  part  of  his 
individual  energy  is  necessarily  expended  in  conquering,  or  if  you 
prefer,  in  correcting  his  own  nature.  Evolution  ought  to  be  free; 
but  instead,  such  a  type  is  necessarily  in  bondage  to  duty,  which 
stops  its  progress.  Accordingly,  the  civilisation  of  China  remains 
the  civilisation  of  China;  it  cannot  invade  the  world. 

The  European  on  the  contrary  has  no  such  racial  virtues;  what- 
ever virtues  he  has  are  associated  with  transitory  forms  of  civili- 
sation, and  are  ready  to  succeed  one  another  on  the  pathway  of 
unlimited  progress.  The  race  can  permit  itself  the  luxury  of  not 
being  virtuous  on  its  own  account;  its  biological  conditions  are 
so  perfect,  that  they  have  reached  the  fullness  of  life.  If  virtue  is 
the  goal  of  the  Chinese,  happiness  is  the  goal  of  the  European. 
The  race  may  indulge  freely  in  the  joys  of  living;  and  dedicate  its 
efforts  solely  to  the  unlimited  progress  of  social  civilisation,  and  to 
the  conquest  of  the  entire  earth. 

The  Tasmanian,  on  the  other  hand,  sparing  by  nature,  lacking 
sufficient  development  of  the  organs  of  vegetative  life,  avoids  every 
form  of  civilisation,  and  precipitates  himself,  an  unconscious 
victim,  upon  the  road  to  death.  His  natural  parsimony,  the 
scantiness  of  his  needs,  have  prevented  him  from  ever  feeling 
that  spur  toward  struggle  and  conquest  which  has  its  basis  in 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       93 


the  necessities  of  life.  Neither  virtue,  nor  felicity,  nor  civilisation, 
nor  survival  were  possible  to  that  race,  whose  extermination  began 
with  the  first  contact  with  European  civilisation.  Hence  we  may 
draw  up  a  table  that  will  serve  to  make  clear  certain  fundamental 
ideas  that  may  prove  useful  guides  along  our  pedagogic  path : 


Biological  types 

Brachysceles 

Mesatisceles 

Macrosceles 

Races  and  peoples.  .  . 
Civilisation  

Chinese. 
Stable  civilisation, 

Europeans. 
Changeable     ci  vil- 

Tasmanians. 
Outside  the  pale  of 

Psycho-moral  types  .  . 

but  limited. 

High  ideal  of  virtue 
and  sacrifice. 

isation,    with   un- 
limited powers  of 
evolution. 
Happiness. 

civilisation. 
Insensibility. 

We  ought  to  strive  for  the  supreme  result  of  producing  men  who 
will  be  happy;  always  keeping  clearly  before  us  the  idea  that  the 
happy  man  is  the  one  who  may  be  spared  the  effort  of  thinking 
of  himself,  and  dedicate  all  his  energies  to  the  unlimited  progress 
of  human  society.  The  preoccupation  of  virtue,  the  voluntary 
sacrifice  are  in  any  case  forces  turned  back  upon  themselves, 
that  expend  upon  the  individual  energies  that  are  lost  to  the 
world  at  large;  nevertheless,  such  standards  of  virtue  are  necessary 
for  certain  inferior  types.  There  exist,  besides,  certain  individuals 
in  rebellion  against  society,  outcasts  whose  lives  depend  upon  the 
succor  of  the  strong,  or  may  be  destroyed  by  their  adverse  inter- 
vention, but  in  any  case  have  ceased  to  depend  upon  the  will  of 
the  individuals  themselves. 

Between  two  inferior  types  the  one  with  the  better  chances  is 
the  one  with  the  larger  chest  development;  apparently,  in  the  case 
of  biological  deviations,  melius  est  abundare  quam  deficere. 

Accordingly,  let  us  draw  up  a  chart.  Human  perfectionment 
tends  toward  harmony.  If  we  wish  to  represent  this  by  some 
symbolic  or  intuitive  sign,  we  could  not  do  so  by  a  mere  line; 
because  perfection  is  not  reached  by  the  quantitative  increase  of 
favourable  parts;  robustness,  for  instance,  cannot  be  indefinitely 
increased  by  augmenting  the  degree  of  brachyscelia ;  nor  can  intel- 
ligence be  increased  by  augmenting  the  volume  of  the  head;  but 


94 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


perfection  is  approached,  in  the  race  and  in  the  individual,  through 
a  central  harmony.  It  is  accordingly  in  the  direction  of  this  centre 
that  progress  is  made;  and  whoever  departs  furthest  from  this 
centre,  departs  furthest  from  perfection,  becomes  more  eccentric, 
more  untypical,  and  at  the  same  time  also  loses  the  psycho-moral 
potentiality  to  attain  the  highest  civic  perfection. 

In  Fig.  17,  we  have  a  graphic  representation  in  three  con- 
centric circles. 

Let  us  begin  by  considering  the  middle  circle,  that  of  the 
abnormals.  Here  we  have  inscribed,  as  psycho-moral  and  physio- 
pathological  traits,  abstemi- 
ousness, anti-social  tendency, 
predisposition  to  disease. 
Abstemiousness  represents  a 
corrective,  without  which  the 
individual  tends  toward  an 
anti-social  line  of  action  and 
contracts  diseases.  Abstemi- 
ousness is  present  within 
the  circle  of  abnormal  human 
beings,  as  a  more  or  less  at- 
tainable ideal ;  but  it  must  be 
regarded  as  the  pedagogic 
goal,  when  the  problem  arises 

FIQ  17_  of   educating   an  untypical 

class    of    individuals.       In 

other  words,  there  are  certain  abnormal  individuals  who,  if  they 
are  not  to  turn  out  criminals,  must  exercise  a  violent  corrective 
influence  over  their  psycho-physical  personality,  and  they  must  be 
trained  to  do  so;  for  it  is  an  influence  unknown  to  the  normal 
man,  who  not  only  has  no  inclination  to  commit  a  crime,  but 
recoils  from  doing  so,  and  on  the  contrary  may  arise  to  degrees 
of  moral  perfection  that  are  inconceivable  to  the  abnormal  man. 
Consequently,  in  order  to  maintain  a  relatively  healthy  condition, 
certain  abnormal  individuals  are  constrained  to  submit  themselves 
to  a  severe  hygienic  regime  throughout  their  entire  life;  a  regime  use- 
less to  the  normal  man,  who  indulges  naturally  in  all  the  pleasures 
which  are  consistent  with  the  full  measure  of  physical  health, 
and  which  remain  forever  unknown,  and  unattainable,  to  the  ab- 
normal individual  organically  predisposed  to  disease. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       95 

Such  self-restraint  we  may  call  the  culte  of  virtue,  a  necessity 
only  to  certain  categories  of  men;  and  we  may  also  call  it  the 
virtue  of  inferior  individuals.  It  applies  and  is  limited  almost 
wholly  to  the  individual. 

Meanwhile,  there  is  the  normal  man's  high  standard  of  virtue, 
which  is  an  indefinite  progress  toward  moral  perfection;  but  the 
path  it  follows  lies  wholly  in  the  direction  of  society  collectively, 
or  toward  the  biological  perfectionment  of  the  species.  In  life's 
attainment  of  such  a  triumph,  man  both  feels  and  is  happy  rather 
than  virtuous. 

The  separation  between  the  circles,  or  rather  between  the  differ- 
ent categories  of  indviduals,  the  normal  and  the  abnormal,  is  not 
clear-cut.  There  always  exist  certain  imperceptibly  transitional 
forms,  between  normality  and  abnormality;  and  furthermore, 
since  no  one  of  us  is  ideally  normal,  no  one  who  is  not  abnormal 
in  some  one  thing,  it  follows  that  this  "some  one  thing"  must  be 
corrected  by  the  humbling  practice  of  self-discipline.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  rare  for  a  man  to  be  abnormal  in  all  parts  of  his  personality; 
in  such  a  case  he  would  be  outside  the  social  pale,  a  monstrosity; 
the  high,  collective  virtues  can,  therefore,  even  if  in  a  limited 
degree,  illuminate  the  moral  life  of  the  abnormals.  St.  Paul  felt 
that  it  "is  hard  to  kick  against  the  pricks";  and  the  picciotto  of 
the  Camorra  feels  that  he  is  obeying  a  society  that  protects  the 
weak. 

It  is  a  question  of  degree.  But  such  a  conception  must  lead  to 
a  separation  in  school  and  in  method  of  education,  for  the  two 
categories  of  individuals. 

ABNORMAL  TYPES  ACCORDING  TO  DE  GIOVANNI'S  THEORY 

Certain  very  important  pathological  types  have  been  distin- 
guished and  established  in  Italy  by  De  Giovanni,  the  Paduan 
clinical  professor  who  introduced  the  anthropological  method  into 
clinical  practice.  Through  his  interesting  studies,  he  has  to-day 
fortunately  revived  the  ancient  theory  of  temperaments,  explaining 
them  on  a  basis  of  physio-pathological  anthropology. 

De  Giovanni  distinguishes  two  fundamental  types;  the  one 
hyposthenic  (weak),  the  other  hyper sthenic  (over-excitable);  these 
two  types  obey  the  following  rules:  morphologically  considered, 
the  hyposthenic  type  has  a  total  spread  of  arms  greater  than  the 


96  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

total  stature  and  a  chest  circumference  of  less  than  half  the  stature: 
these  data  alone  are  enough  to  tell  us  that  the  type  in  question  is 
macroscelous;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  chest  is  narrow  and  the  abdo- 
men narrower  still.  De  Giovanni  says  that,  owing  to  the  scant 
pulmonary  and  abdominal  capacity  the  organs  of  vegetative  life 
are  inadequate;  the  heart  is  too  small  and  unequal  to  its  function 
of  general  irrigator  of  the  organism;  the  circulation  is  consequently 
sluggish,  as  shown  by  the  bluish  net-work  of  veins,  indicating 
some  obstacle  to  the  flow  of  blood. 

The  type  is  predominantly  lymphatic,  the  muscles  flaccid, 
with  a  tendency  to  develop  fatty  tissues,  but  very  little  muscular 
fibre;  there  is  a  predisposition  to  bronchial  catarrh,  but  above  all 
to  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  This  hyposthenic  type,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  lymphatic  temperament  of  Greek  medicine,  is  in  reality 
a  macroscelous  type  somewhat  exceeding  normal  limits  and  there- 
fore physiologically  inefficient  and  feeble. 

The  following  is  De  Giovanni's  description: 

Morphologically. — Deficient  chest  capacity,  deficient  abdominal 
capacity,  disproportionate  and  excessive  development  of  the  limbs; 
insufficient  muscularity. 

Physiologically. — Insufficient  respiration,  and  consequent  scanty 
supply  of  oxygen  (a  form  of  chronic  asphyxia  of  internal  origin), 
insufficient  circulation,  because  the  small  heart  sends  the  blood 
through  the  arteries  at  too  low  a  pressure;  and  this  blood,  insuffi- 
ciently oxygenated,  fails  to  furnish  the  tissues  with  their  normal 
interchange  of  matter,  and  therefore  the  assimilative  functions  in 
general  all  suffer;  finally,  the  venous  blood  is  under  an  excessive 
pressure  in  the  veins,  the  return  flow  to  the  heart  is  rendered 
difficult  and  there  results  a  tendency  to  venous  hyperemia  (con- 
gestion of  the  veins),  even  in  the  internal  organs.  This  is  accom- 
panied by  what  De  Giovanni  calls  nervous  erethism  (in  contradis- 
tinction to  torpor),  which  amounts  to  an  abnormal  state  of  the 
central  nervous  system,  causing  predisposition  to  insanity  and  to 
various  forms  of  neurasthenia  (rapid  exhaustion,  irritability). 

This  type  is  especially  predisposed  to  maladies  of  the  respira- 
tory system,  subject  to  bronchial  catarrh  recurring  annually,  liable 
to  attacks  of  bronchitis,  pleurisy,  and  pneumonia,  and  easily  falls 
victim  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

Here  are  a  few  cases  recorded  by  De  Giovanni.*     (It  must  be 

*  DE  GIOVANNI,  Op,  cit.,  p.  236.     Cases  referring  to  the  first  morphologic  combination. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       97 

borne  in  mind  that  the  total  spread  of  the  arms,  Ts,  ought  to  equal 
the  total  stature,  St.     The  measurements  are  given  in  centimetres.) 

F.  M. — St  147;  Ts  151. — Extremely  frail;  frequent  attacks  of 
hemorrhage  of  the  nose;  habitually  pale  and  thin.  Certain 
disproportions  of  the  skeleton,  hands  and  feet  greatly  en- 
larged; extreme  development  of  the  subcutaneous  veins. 
Pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

A.  M. — St  161;  Ts  193. — Nervous  erethism;  from  the  age  of 
twelve  subject  to  laryngo-bronchial  catarrh;  every  slight  ill- 
ness accompanied  by  fever;  habitually  thin.  Pulmonary 
tuberculosis. 

F.  M. — St  150;  Ts  150;  Ct  67. — Lymphatic,  torpid,  almost  chronic 
bloating  of  the  abdomen.  Enlargement  of  the  glands;  scars 
from  chilblains  on  hands  and  feet.  Primary  tuberculosis  of 
the  glands,  secondary  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs. 

A.  M. — St  172;  Ts  179. — Extreme  emaciation,  heart  singularly 
small.  Chronic  bronchial  catarrh. 

If  it  is  important  for  us,  as  educators,  to  be  acquainted  with 
this  type  in  the  adult  state,  it  ought  to  interest  us  far  more 
during  its  ontogenesis,  that  is,  during  the  course  of  its  individual 
evolution. 

Since,  in  the  process  of  growth,  man  passes  through  different 
stages,  due  to  alteration  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the  different 
organs  and  parts,  it  follows  that  this  hyposthenic  type  corre- 
spondingly alters  its  predisposition  to  disease.  Its  final  state, 
manifested  by  various  defects  of  development,  gave  unmistakable 
forewarnings  at  every  period  of  growth. 

In  early  infancy  symptoms  of  rickets  presented  themselves, 
and  then  disappeared,  like  an  unfulfilled  threat:  dentition  was 
tardy  or  irregular;  the  head  was  large  and  with  persistent  nodules. 
This  class,  as  a  type,  is  weak,  sickly,  easily  attacked  by  infec- 
tious diseases,  tracoma,  purulent  otitis. 

When  the  first  period  of  growth  is  passed,  glandular  symptoms 
begin,  with  liability  to  sluggishness  of  the  lymphatic  glands  (scrof- 
ula) or  persistent  swelling  of  the  lymphatic  ganglia  of  the  neck. 
This  is  supplemented  by  bronchial  catarrh,  recurring  year  after 
year;  finally  intestinal  catarrh  follows,  accompanied  in  most  cases 
by  loss  of  appetite. 


98        PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Such  conditions  are  influenced  very  slightly  or  not  at  all  by 
medical  treatment. 

During  the  period  of  puberty,  cardiopalmus  (palpitation  of  the 
heart)  is  very  likely  to  occur,  often  accompanied  by  frequent  and 
abundant  epistasis,  or  by  the  occurrence  of  slight  fever  in  the 
evening,  and  by  blood-stained  expectorations,  suggestive  of  tuber- 
culosis. The  patient  is  pale  (oligohsemic),  very  thin,  and  shoots 
up  rapidly  (preponderant  growth  of  the  limbs);  he  is  subject  to 
muscular  asthenia  (weakness,  exhaustibility  of  the  muscles)  and  to 
various  forms  of  nervous  excitability. 

These  symptoms  also  (some  of  them  so  serious  as  to  arouse 
fears,  at  one  time  of  rickets  and  at  another  of  tuberculosis),  are  all 
of  them  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  medical  treatment  (tonics,  etc.). 

Now,  a  fact  of  the  highest  importance,  discovered  by  De 
Giovanni,  is  that  of  spontaneous  corrections,  that  is,  the  develop- 
ment of  compensations  within  the  organism,  suited  to  mitigate 
the  anamolous  conditions  of  this  type,  and  hence  the  possibility  of 
an  artificial  intervention  capable  of  calling  forth  such  compensations. 
Such  intervention  cannot  be  other  then  pedagogic;  and  it  should 
consist  in  a  rational  system  of  gymnastics,  designed  in  one  case 
to  develop  the  heart,  in  another  the  chest,  in  another  to  modify 
the  intestinal  functions  or  to  stimulate  the  material  renewal  of 
the  body;  while  every  form  of  over-exertion  must  be  rigorously 
avoided. 

''I  think  that  we  should  regard  as  an  error  not  without  conse- 
quences what  may  be  seen  any  day  in  the  gymnasiums  of  the  public 
schools,  where  pupils  differing  in  bodily  aptitude,  and  with  differ- 
ent gymnastic  capacity  and  different  needs  are  with  little  dis- 
cernment subjected  to  the  same  identical  exercises,  for  the  same 
length  of  time. 

"And  day  by  day  we  see  the  results :  there  are  some  children  who 
rebel  outright  against  the  required  exercise  which  they  fear  and 
from  which  they  cannot  hope  to  profit,  because  it  demands  an 
effort  beyond  their  strength.  Some  have  even  been  greatly 
harmed;  so  that  one  after  another  they  abandon  these  bodily  exer- 
cises, which  if  they  had  been  more  wisely  directed  would  assuredly 
have  bettered  their  lot. 

''Experience  also  teaches  that  one  pupil  may  be  adapted  to 
one  kind  of  exercise  and  another  to  another  kind.  Accordingly 
a  really  physiological  system  of  gymnastics  requires  that  those 


FIG.  18.  FIG.  19. 

Brachyscelous  type  (from  Viola). 


( 


FIG.  20.  FIG.  21. 

Macroscelous  type  (from  Viola). 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY       99 

movements  and  those  exercises  which  are  least  easily  performed  should 
be  practised  according  to  special  methods,  until  they  have  strength- 
ened the  less  developed  functions,  without  ever  causing  illness  or 
producing  harmful  reactions.*" 

So  that  the  final  results  are  an  improvement  in  the  morpho- 
logical proportions  of  the  organism,  and  consequently  a  correction 
and  improvement  in  the  relative  liability  to  disease. 

The  other  fundamental  pathological  type  described  by  De 
Giovanni  is  the  hyper sthenic  (second  morphological  combination), 
corresponding  in  part  to  the  sanguine  temperament  of  Greek 
medicine,  and  in  part  to  the  bilious  temperament.  In  this  type 
the  total  spread  of  the  arms  is  generally  less  than  the  stature,  and 
the  perimeter  of  the  chest  notably  exceeds  one-half  the  stature. 
Consequently  we  are  dealing  with  the  brachyscelous  type. 

This  type  has  a  greatly  developed  thorax,  a  large  heart,  an 
excessive  development  of  the  intestines;  hence  he  is  a  hearty  eater, 
subject  to  an  over-abundance  of  blood;  he  is  over-nourished,  the 
ruddy  skin  reveals  an  abundant  circulation,  there  is  an  excess  of 
adipose  tissue  and  a  good  development  of  the  striped  muscles. 
Such  a  constitution  accompanies  an  excitable,  impulsive,  violent 
disposition,  and  conduces  to  diseases  of  the  heart.  "This  type  is 
characterised  in  general  by  robustness  and  a  liability  to  disorders 
of  the  central  circulatory  system,  "f 

But  there  are  still  other  forms  of  disease  that  await  the  in- 
dividuals of  this  class,  such  for  example  as  disorders  affecting 
the  interchange  of  organic  matter  (diabetes,  gout,  polysarcia  = 
obesity)  and  attacks  of  an  apoplectic  nature.  In  the  case  of  acute 
illness  individuals  of  this  class  suffer  from  excess  of  blood  and  may 
be  relieved  by  being  bled.  They  are  readily  liable  to  bloody 
excretions. 

Here  are  a  few  cases  illustrating  this  morphological  combination, 
which  is  characterised  by  an  exorbitant  chest  development  (it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  circumference  of  the  thorax,  Ct, 
should  equal  one-half  the  stature,  St). 

P.  A. — St  156;  Ct  93. — Endocarditis;  insufficient  heart-action. 

Z.  C. — St  168;  Ct  95. — Cerebral  hyperemia  of  an  apoplectic  nature. 

Hypertrophy  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart.     Polysarcous 

(gluttonous)  eater. 

*  DE  GIOVANNI,  Op.  cit. 
t  DE  GIOVANNI,  Op.  tit. 


100  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

B.  G. — St  166;  Ct  104. — Diabetic,  obese,  subject  to  diabetic 
ischialgia  (neuralgia) j  frequent  recurrence  of  gravel  in  the 
urine.  Tendency  to  excesses  of  the  table. 

D.  G. — St  160;  Ct  96. — Polysarcia,  the  first  symptoms  of  which 
appeared  in  early  youth.  At  the  age  of  sixteen,  suffered  from 
all  the  discomforts  of  obesity.  Shows  atheroma  (fatty  degen- 
eration) of  the  aorta,  irregular  heart-action,  hypertrophy 
and  enlargement  of  the  heart. 

In  this  brachyscelous  type  it  may  happen  either  that  the  whole 
trunk  (that  is,  both  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities)  is  in 
excess,  or  else  that  the  excessive  development  is  confined  to  the 
abdomen.  This  latter  case  is  very  frequent,  and  may  easily  be 
found  even  in  early  childhood.  Such  children  are  hearty  eaters, 
are  very  active  and,  for  this  reason,  the  pride  and  joy  of  their 
parents.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many  signs  that  should  give 
warning  of  constitutional  defects;  constant  digestive  disturbances 
(diarrhoea),  frequent  headaches,  pains  in  the  joints,  apparently 
of  a  rheumatic  character,  tendency  to  pains  in  the  liver  which  is 
excessively  enlarged;  excess  of  adipose  tissue;  a  tendency  to  fall 
ill  very  easily,  of  maladies  that  are  almost  always  happily  overcome 
(but  the  truly  robust  person  is  not  the  one  who  recovers  from  ill- 
ness, but  the  one  who  does  not  become  ill),  and  finally  an  excessively 
lively  disposition,  irritability  and  above  all,  impulsiveness. 

Such  individuals  ought,  like  the  macrosceles,  to  live  under  the 
necessary  and  perpetual  tyranny  of  a  hygienic  regime,  adapted  to 
correct  or  to  diminish  the  morbid  predispositions  associated  with 
the  organism.  A  special  dietetic,  a  regular  hydrotherapic  treat- 
ment, a  moderate  gymnastic  exercise  designed  to  direct  the  child's 
motive  powers,  and  thus  to  prepare  the  man  for  that  form  of 
existence  to  which  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  subject  himself,  if  he 
does  not  wish  to  shorten  his  own  life,  or  at  least  his  period  of 
activity — all  these  things  are  so  many  duties  which  the  school 
ought  in  great  part  to  assume. 

In  this  way  we  have  briefly  considered  the  abnormal  types  of 
brachyscelia  and  macroscelia,  which  by  their  very  constitution 
are  predisposed  to  incur  special  and  characteristic  forms  of  disease, 
which  may  be  avoided  only  by  subjecting  the  organism  to  a  special 
hygienic  regimen.  Men  cannot  all  live  according  to  the  same  rules. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     101 

TYPES  OF  STATURE  IN  CRIMINALS 

In  these  latter  times,  some  very  recent  researches  have  been 
made  by  applying  De  Giovanni's  method  to  the  anthropological 
study  of  criminals,  especially  through  the  labours  of  Dr.  Boxich. 
He  has  found  that  the  great  majority  of  parasitic  criminals, 
thieves  for  example,  are  macrosceles.  They  exhibit  the  stigmata 
already  revealed  by  Lombroso:  great  length  of  the  upper  limbs, 
with  elongated  hands;  furthermore,  a  narrow  chest  and  a  small 
heart,  insufficient  for  its  vital  function;  such  individuals  are 
singularly  predisposed  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  and  hence  in 
their  physical  constitution  they  are  already  stamped  as  organisms 
of  inferior  biological  value — having  little  endurance  and  almost  no 
ability  as  producers — consequently  they  are  forced  to  live  as  they 
can,  that  is  like  parasites,  profiting  by  the  work  of  others.  On 
the  contrary,  the  great  majority  of  criminals  of  a  violent  character 
present  the  brachyscelous  type:  the  thorax  is  greatly  developed, 
the  heart  hypertrophic,  the  arterial  circulation  superabundant. 
This  class  of  criminals,  including  a  large  proportion  of  murderers, 
have  a  special  tendency  to  act  from  impulse,  corresponding  to 
their  large  heart  which  sends  an  excess  of  blood  pulsing  violently 
to  the  brain,  obscuring  the  psychic  functions;  or,  in  the  speech 
of  the  people,  such  a  man  has  "lost  his  reason,"  "the  light  goes 
from  the  eyes  when  the  blood  goes  to  the  brain." 

Here  are  some  notes  regarding  these  two  different  types:  we 
will  select  as  measures  of  comparison  the  stature  and  the  weight, 
bearing  in  mind  that  in  the  macrosceles  the  weight  is  scanty  and 
that  the  opposite  is  true  of  the  brachysceles,  while  normally  there 
ought  to  be  a  pretty  close  correspondence  betwen  the  weight  in 
kilograms  and  the  centimetres  of  stature  over  and  above  one 
metre. 

TYPES  OF  NON-VIOLENT  CRIMINALS  (Parasites) 

Case  No.  24.— St.  168;  Wt.  56.  Farm  steward,  three  years' 
sentence  for  theft.  Pallid  complexion,  visible  veins,  scant 
muscles.  Heart  small  and  weak,  pulse  feeble  and  slow. 

Case  No.  34. — St.  175;  Wt.  61.  Baker,  comfortable  financial 
circumstances,  has  received  a  number  of  sentences  for  theft, 
amounting  altogether  to  ten  years.  Is  twenty-four  years  of 
age.  Cyanosis  of  the  extremities  (bluish  tinge,  due  to 


102  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

excessive  venous  circulation).     Cardiac  action  feeble.     Scant 
muscles. 

Case  No.  43. — St.  156;  Wt.  51.  Peasant.  Straitened  circum- 
stances. Four  years'  sentence  for  theft.  Rejected  by  the 
army  board  for  defective  chest  measurement.  Dark  com- 
plexion. Extensive  acne.  Scant  muscles.  Bronchial  catarrh. 
Has  had  hemoptysis  (spitting  of  blood).  Cardiac  action 
weak.  Pulse  very  feeble. 

Case  No.  52.— St.  173;  Wt.  66.  Book-binder.  Prosperous  cir- 
cumstances. Four  years'  sentence  or  thereabouts,  for  theft; 
age,  twenty-four.  Conjunctivitis  and  blepharitis  from  early 
childhood.  Frontal  and  parietal  nodules  prominent.  Muscles 
scant;  cardiac  action  weak;  lymphatic  glands  of  the  neck 
enlarged. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  the  typical  thief  :* 

St.  162;  Wt.  46. — Exceedingly  small  heart,  feeble  cardiac  action. 
Suffers  from  chronic  bronchial  catarrh.  Cranial  nodules 
very  prominent.  Began  as  a  small  child  to  steal  in  his  own 
home,  and  since  then  has  received  sentence  after  sentence 
for  theft,  up  to  his  present  age  of  twenty-nine. 

TYPES  OF  VIOLENT  CRIMINALS  (Assault,  Mayhem,  Homicide) 
Case  No.  54. — St.  157;  Wt.  62.  Peasant.  Good  financial  circum- 
stances. Condemned  to  thirty  years  in  prison  for  homicide. 
Well-developed  muscles.  Blood  vessels  congested.  Strong 
heart  action;  the  pulsation  extends  as  far  down  as  the  epi- 
gastrium. Ample  pulse. 

Case  No.  QQ.—St.  156;  Wt.  70.  Shoemaker.  Bad  financial  cir- 
cumstances. Condemned  to  fifteen  years'  imprisonment  for 
homicide,  after  having  been  previously  convicted  three  times 
for  theft.  The  chest  circumference  exceeds  one-half  the 
stature  by  11  centimetres.  Subject  to  frequent  pains  in  the 
head.  Good  muscles.  Corpulent.  Full  pulse.  (It  should 
be  noticed  that  the  florid  complexion,  accompanying  this 
type  of  stature,  persists  in  spite  of  straitened  circumstances!) 
Case  No.  85— St.  168;  Wt.  70.  Turner  in  iron.  Comfortable 
circumstances.  Sentenced  to  thirty  years  in  prison  after  one 
previous  conviction  for  criminal  assault.  Ruddy  complexion. 
Veins  not  visible.  Abdomen  very  prominent.  Gastrectasia 

*Boxich,    Contribution   to    the   Morphological,     Clinical   and   Anthropological  Study   of 
delinquents. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     103 

(dilation  of  the  stomach).     Entire  cardiac  region  protuberant. 
Laboured  breathing.     Cardiac  action  abundant. 

Hence  we  perceive,  in  the  etiology  of  crime,  the  importance 
of  the  organic  factor,  connected  directly  with  the  lack  of  harmony 
in  the  viscera  and  their  functions,  and  consequently  accompanied 
by  special  morbid  predispositions. 

As  a  result  of  this  line  of  research,  criminality  and  pathology 
are  coming  to  be  studied  more  and  more  in  conjunction.  For 
that  matter,  it  was  already  observed  by  Lombroso  that  in  addition 
to  the  various  external  malformations  found  in  criminals,  there 
were  also  certain  anomalies  of  the  internal  organs,  and  a  wide- 
spread and  varied  predisposition  to  disease.  In  short,  his  statis- 
tics reveal  a  prevalence  of  cardiac  maladies  and  of  tuberculosis 
in  criminals,  as  well  as  a  great  frequency  of  diseases  of  the  liver 
and  the  intestines. 

EXTREME  OR  INFANTILE  TYPES,  NANISM  AND  GIGANTISM,  EXTRA- 
SOCIAL  TYPES 

Whenever  the  disproportion  between  the  bust  and  the  limbs 
surpasses  the  extreme  normal  limits,  the  whole  individual  reveals 
a  complex  departure  from  type.  Thus,  for  example,  in  connection 
with  extreme  brachyscelia,  there  exists  a  characteristic  form  of 
nanism  (dwarfishness),  called  achondroplastic  nanism,  in  which, 
although  the  bust  is  developed  very  nearly  within  normal  limits, 
the  limbs  on  the  contrary  are  arrested  in  their  growth  so  as  to 
remain  permanently  nothing  more  than  little  appendages  of  the 
trunk.  This  calls  to  mind  the  foetal  form  of  the  new-born  child, 
and  the  resulting  type,  because  of  this  morphological  coincidence, 
is  classed  among  the  infantile  types. 

Achondroplastic  nanism  is  associated  with  a  pathological 
deformity  due  to  foetal  rickets.  It  is  not  only  the  child  after 
birth,  but  the  foetus  also  which,  during  its  intrauterine  life,  may 
be  subject  to  diseases.  Rickets  (always  a  localised  disease, 
usually  attacking  some  part  of  the  skeleton)  in  this  case  fastens 
upon  the  enchondral  cartilages  of  the  long  bones.  As  we  know,  the 
long  bones  are  composed  of  a  body  or  diaphysis  and  of  extremities 
or  articular  heads,  the  epiphyses.  Now,  these  different  parts, 
which  form  in  the  adult  a  continuous  whole,  remain  separate 
throughout  the  foetal  and  the  immediate  post-natal  period :  so  that 


104  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  heads  of  the  humerus  and  the  femur,  for  example,  in  the  case 
of  the  new-born  child,  are  found  to  be  joined  to  the  diaphysis  by 
cartilages  (destined  to  ossify  later  on),  which  are  the  chief  seat  of 
growth  of  the  bones  in  the  direction  of  length.  Well,  in  these 
cases  of  pre-natal  rickets,  the  union  of  the  bony  segments  takes 
place  prematurely,  and  since  the  bones  can  hardly  grow  at  all 
in  length,  they  develop  in  thickness,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
limbs  remain  very  short  and  stocky.  Meanwhile  the  bust, 
the  bones  of  which  have  in  no  way  lost  their  power  of  growth, 
develops  normally. 

Now,  these  dwarfs,  who  have  abundant  intelligence,  because 
they  have  the  essential  parts  of  stature  in  their  favour,  constituted 
the  famous  jesters  of  the  mediaeval  courts,  whose  misfortune  served 
to  solace  the  leisure  hours  of  royalty.  Paolo  Veronese  went  so 
far  as  to  introduce  a  dwarf  buffoon,  of  the  achondroplastic  type, 
into  his  famous  painting,  The  Wedding  at  Cana. 

Conversely,  in  connection  with  an  exaggerated  macroscelia,  we 
have  gigantism. 

Ordinarily,  a  giant  has  a  bust  that  is  not  greatly  in  excess  of 
normal  dimensions.  The  limbs,  on  the  contrary,  depart  ex- 
tremely from  the  normal  limits,  in  an  exaggerated  growth  in  the 
direction  of  length:  so  much  so  that  the  bodies  of  giants  present 
the  appearance  of  small  busts  moving  around  on  stilts. 

Nevertheless,  many  different  forms  of  gigantism  occur.  The 
pathology  of  this  phenomenon  is  quite  complex;  but  we  can 
not  concern  ourselves  with  it  here.  It  is  a  scientific  problem 
of  no  immediate  utility  to  our  pedagogic  problems.  Dwarfs 
and  giants,  whatever  their  type  and  their  pathological  etiology, 
constitute  extra-social  individuals,  who  have  been  at  all  times 
excluded  from  any  possibility  of  adaptation  to  useful  labour, 
and  employed,  whether  in  the  middle  ages  or  in  the  twentieth 
century,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  as  a  source  of  amusement  to 
normal  beings,  because  of  their  grotesque  appearance,  either  at 
court  or  in  the  theatres,  or  in  moving  pictures,  or  (in  the  case  of 
giants)  as  figures  suited  to  adorn  princely  or  imperial  gateways. 
These  individuals  are  as  completely  independent  of  the  social 
conditions  of  the  environment  in  which  they  were  born  as  if  they 
were  extraneous  to  humanity.  In  relation  to  the  species,  they  are 
sterile. 

From  the  biological  side,  a  consideration  of  these  types  serves 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     105 

merely  as  an  illustration  of  an  important  law:  the  essential  part 
of  the  organism  (the  vertebral  column)  is  less  variable  than  the 
accessory  parts  (the  limbs). 


SUMMAEY    OF   THE    TYPES    OF   STATUEE 

According  to  the  relative  development  of  bust  and  limbs  we 
have  distinguished  three  types,  the  macrosceles,  the  brachysceles 
and  the  mesatisceles,  within  their  respective  limits  of  oscillation. 

Since  the  type  of  stature  gives  us  a  proportion  between  the 
different  parts  of  an  individual,  it  constitutes  a  fundamental  criter- 
ion for  a  morphological  judgment  of  the  personality.  That  is,  it 
leads  to  a  diagnosis  of  the  individual  constitution,  with  which  are 
associated  not  only  the  " character"  but  also  certain  predisposi- 
tions to  disease. 

A  knowledge  of  these  types  shows  us  the  necessity  we  educators 
are  under  of  taking  into  consideration  the  individual  pupils,  each 
of  whom  may  have  separate  needs,  tendencies  and  forms  of  develop- 
ment; and  of  demanding  separate  schools,  in  which  even  the  methods 
of  moral  education  must  differ.  Because  men  are  not  only  not  all 
adapted  to  the  same  forms  of  work,  but  they  are  not  even  all 
adapted  to  the  same  standards  of  morality.  And  since  it  is  our 
duty  to  assume  the  task  of  aiding  the  biological  development  and 
the  social  adaptation  of  the  new  generations,  it  will  also  be  part  of 
our  task  to  correct  defective  organisms,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
correct  the  types  of  mental  and  moral  inferiority. 

In  the  following  chart  we  may  summarise  the  points  of  view 
from  which  we  have  studied  the  types  of  stature : 


Types  of  stature 


Variations  in 
types  of 
stature 


SYNOPTIC  CHART 

Macrosceles [  long  legs,  short  bust. 

Brachysceles !    short  legs,  long  bust. 

Mongols  (brachysceles). 
Tasmanians  (macrosceles). 
Dark   Mediterranean  race   (mesatis- 
celes tending  toward  brachyoscelia). 
Blond  race  (mesatisceles  tending  to- 
ward macroscelia). 
/  Woman  more  brachyscelous. 
Man  more  macroscelous. 
Childhood  brachyscelous. 
\  Old  age  macroscelous. 


Normal 


Race 


Sex 


Age 


106 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


SYNOPTIC  CHART— Continued 


Variations  in 
types  of 
stature 


Pathologically 
abnormal. 


Criminals. 
Infantile  types 


DE   GIOVANNI'S    f  Macrosceles     pre- 
hyposthenic  disposed  to  tu- 

types.  berculosis. 

DE  GIOVANNI'S      Brachysceles   pre- 
hypersthenic  disposed  to  dis- 

types.  eases  of  the 

heart. 

Macrosceles parasites. 

Brachysceles violent. 

Achondroplastic  nanism. 

Gigantism. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SCIENTIFIC  PRINCIPLES  ILLUSTRATED  IN  THE 
COURSE  OF  OUR  DISCUSSION 

Biological  Laws. — a.  Growth  is  not  only  an  augmentation  in 
volume,  but  also  an  evolution  in  form. 

b.  The  more  essential  parts  vary  less  than  the  accessory  parts 
in  the  course  of  their  transformations. 

The  Index. — The  index  is  the  mathematical  relation  between  the 
measurements  belonging  to  the  same  individual,  and  as  such  it 
gives  us  an  idea  of  the  form;  since  the  form  is  determined  by  the 
relations  between  the  various  parts  constituting  the  whole. 

THE  STATURE 

While  the  figure  and  the  type  of  stature  tend  to  delineate  the 
individual  considered  by  himself,  the  different  measurements  con- 
sidered separately  may  guide  us  in  our  study  of  individuals  in  their 
relation  to  the  race  and  the  environment. 

Among  the  measurements  of  the  form,  we  will  limit  ourselves 
to  a  study  of  the  stature  and  the  weight,  which  serve  to  give  us 
respectively  the  linear  index  of  development  and  the  volumetric 
estimate  of  the  body  taken  as  a  whole.  We  shall  reserve  the  study 
of  the  other  measurements,  such  as  the  total  spread  of  the  arms 
and  the  perimeter  of  the  thorax,  until  we  come  to  the  analytical 
investigation  of  the  separate  parts  of  the  body  (limbs,  thorax). 

The  stature  is  expressed  by  a  linear  measure  determined  by  the 
distance  intervening  in  a  vertical  direction  between  the  plane  on 
which  the  individual  is  standing  in  an  erect  position  and  the  top 
of  his  head. 

It  follows  that  the  stature  is  a  measurement  determined  by  the 
erect  position;  on  the  other  hand,  when  a  man  is  in  a  recumbent 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     107 

position,  what  we  could  determine  would  be  the  length  of  body, 
which  is  not  identical  with  the  stature. 

In  fact,  a  man  on  foot,  resting  his  weight  upon  articulations 
that  are  elastic,  and  therefore  compressible,  is  a  little  shorter  than 
when  he  is  recumbent. 

If  we  examine  the  skeleton  (see  Fig.  9),  we  discover  that  the 
single  synthetic  measure  that  constitutes  the  stature  results  from 
a  sum  of  parts  that  differ  greatly  from  one  another.  To  be  spe- 
cific, it  is  composed  of  the  long  and  short  bones  of  the  lower  limbs; 
of  flat  bones,  such  as  the  pelvis  and  the  skull;  of  little  spongy 
bones,  such  as  the  vertebrae;  all  of  which  bones  and  parts  obey 
different  laws  in  the  course  of  their  growth.  Furthermore,  inter- 
vening between  these  various  bones  are  soft,  elastic  parts,  known 
as  the  articulations,  which,  starting  from  below,  succeed  each  other 
in  the  following  order: 

1.  Calcaneo-astragaloid,  between  the  calcaneus  and  the  superimposed  astraga- 

lus. 

2.  Tibio-astragaloid,  between  the  astragalus  and  the  superimposed  tibia. 

3.  Of  the  knee,  between  the  tibia  and  the  femur. 

4.  Of  the  hip,  between  the  femur  and  the  os  innominatum. 

5.  Sacro-iliac,  between  the  os  iliacum  and  the  sacrum. 

6.  Sacro-vertebral,  between  the  sacrum  and  the  last  lumbar  vertebra. 

7.  Of  the  vertebras,  consisting  of  23  intervertebral  disks,  that  is  to  say  inter- 

posed between  the  vertebrae,  which  include  the  following:    5  lumbar, 
12  thoracic,  7  cervical. 

8.  Occipito-atloid,  between  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  called  the  atlas  and  the 

os  occipitale  of  the  cranium. 

Accordingly,  there  are  thirty  articulations  in  all;  and  of  these, 
23  are  the  intervertebral  disks,  which  constitute,  taken  together,  a 
fourth  part  of  the  complex  height  of  the  vertebral  column. 

Furthermore,  the  height  of  the  body  cannot  be  considered  sim- 
ply the  sum  of  the  component  parts,  since  these  are  not  superim- 
posed in  a  straight  line.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  we  examine  the 
vertebral  column,  we  see  that  it  is  not  straight  as  in  the  case  of 
animals,  but  exhibits  certain  curves  that  are  characteristic  of  the 
'human  species,  and  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  their  rela- 
tion to  the  erect  position.  In  fact,  the  vertebral  column  presents 
two  curvatures,  the  one  lumbar,  and  the  other  cervical,  which 
together  give  it  the  form  of  an  S.  These  curvatures  are  acquired 
along  with  the  erect  position,  and  are  not  innate;  one  of  the  points 
of  difference  between  the  skeleton  of  the  new-born  child  and  that 


108  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

of  the  adult  is  precisely  this,  that  the  former  has  a  straight  vertebral 
column. 

A  fact  of  no  small  importance  to  note,  since  in  the  course  of 
growth  a  certain  determined  form  of  normal  curve,  and  no  other, 
ought  to  establish  itself;  otherwise,  abnormal  deviations  in  the 
vertebral  column  will  become  established.  And  for  the  very 
reason  that  it  is  plastic  and  destined  to  assume  a  curve,  the  vertebral 
column  may  very  easily  be  forced  into  exaggerating  or  departing 
from  its  morphological  destiny.  In  such  a  case,  the  resulting 
stature  would  be  inferior  to  what  it  should  normally  have  been. 

Accordingly,  the  stature  is  the  resultant  of  the  sum  of  anatom- 
ical parts  and  of  morphological  conditions. 

Hence  it  is  a  linear  index  not  only  of  biological  man,  that  is,  of 
man  considered  in  relation  to  his  racial  limitations;  but  also  of 
social  man,  that  is,  of  man  as  he  has  developed  in  the  struggle  for 
adaptation  to  his  environment. 

The  limits  of  stature,  according  to  race.  Stature  is  an  anthro- 
pological datum  of  great  biological  value,  since  it  is  a  definite  racial 
characteristic  and  is  preserved  from  generation  to  generation  by 
heredity.  The  first  distinguishing  trait  of  a  race  is  the  height  of 
the  body  in  its  natural  erect  position.  It  is  also  the  first  charac- 
teristic that  strikes  us  when  a  stranger  comes  toward  us  for  the 
first  time.  And  that  is  why  we  make  it  the  leading  descriptive 
trait:  a  person  of  tall,  or  of  low  stature.  If,  for  a  moment,  we 
should  picture  to  ourselves  the  legend  of  Noah's  Ark — quite  incred- 
ible, because  emigration  and  embarkation  of  all  the  known  species 
would  have  required  more  than  a  century  of  time  (it  is  enough 
merely  to  think  of  the  embarkation  of  the  tortoises  and  the 
sloths!),  and  the  necessity  of  an  ark  as  big  as  a  nation,  what  must 
inevitably  have  struck  Noah  and  his  sons  would  have  been  the 
stature  of  the  individuals  belonging  to  each  separate  species. 

The  stature  is  the  linear  index  of  the  limit  of  mass. 

Among  the  human  races  the  variations  in  stature  are  included 
between  fairly  wide  oscillations:  coming  down  to  facts,  the 
average  stature  of  the  Akkas  is  1.387  m.  (4  ft.  61/2  in.)  for  the 
males;  and  that  of  the  Scotchmen  of  Galloway  is  1.792  m.  (5  ft. 
10  1/2  in.).  Accordingly  between  the  average  heights  of  the  two 
races  that  are  considered  as  the  extremes,  there  is  a  difference  of 
40  cm.  (15  3/4  in.) ;  but  since  the  averages  are  obtained  from  a  com- 
plex mass  of  normal  measurements,  some  of  which  are  above  and 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     109 


others  necessarily  below  the  average  itself,  we  may  assert  that  the 
"normal  human  individuals"  may  differ  in  stature  to  an  extent  of 
more  than  half  a  metre;  the  oscillations  of  normal  individuals  on 
each  side  of  the  racial  average  being  estimated  at  about  10  cm. 
(3.937  in.). 

If  we  should  see  a  little  Akka  4  ft.  4  in.  (1.33  m.)  in  height 
alongside  of  a  Scotchman  6  ft.  (1.83  m.)  high  we  should  say  "a 
dwarf  beside  a  giant."  But  such  terms  are  pathological  and  should 
never  be  employed  to  indicate  normal  individualities.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  dwarfs  and  giants  are  as  a  class  extra-social  and  sterile; 
normal  individuals,  on  the  contrary,  represent  the  physiopsychic 
characteristics  of  their  respective  races.  Consequently  we  may  say 
that  normal  people  have  a  low  stature,  or  a  high  stature;  or  if  it  is 
a  question  of  extremely  low  stature  (such  as  that  of  the  Akkas) 
we  may  make  use  of  the  term  pigmies  or  of  the  pigmy  race,  in  speak- 
ing of  such  individuals.  Sergi  has  proved  the  existence,  among 
the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  Europe,  of  various  pigmy  races. 

In  the  field  of  anthropology  the  scientific  terminology  ought 
always  to  be  based  upon  certain  determined  limits.  The  author- 
ities indicate  the  normal  extremes  of  individual  stature,  beyond 
which  we  pass  over  the  into  realm  of  pathology,  incompatible  with 
the  survival  of  the  species;  and  even  in  the  pathological  cases  they 
determine  the  extreme  limits,  obtained  from  the  individual  mon- 
strosities that  have  actually  existed  in  the  course  of  the  centuries, 
and  that  seem  to  indicate  the  furthest  limits  attained  by  the  human 
race. 

Deniker,  in  summing  up  the  principal  authorities,  assigns  the 
following  limits: 


Statures 
less 
than 
1.25  m. 

Normal  statures,  range  of  oscillations  among  the  races 

Statures 
from 
2  m. 
upward 

Lowest 
indi- 
vidual 
extreme 

Excep- 
tionally 
low  in- 
dividual 
stature 

Extreme 
low 
racial 
average 

Extreme 
high 
racial 
average 

Excep- 
tionally 
high  in- 
dividual 
stature 

Highest 
indi- 
vidual 
extreme 

Nanism 

1.25  m. 

1.35  m. 

Akkas 

Scotch- 

1.90 m. 

1.99  m. 

Gigant- 

1.387  m. 

men  of 

i.-ni 

Galloway 
1.792  m. 

110 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


The  pathological  extremes  that  would  seem  to  indicate  the 
limits  of  stature  compatible  with  human  life  would  seem  to  be  on 
the  one  hand  the  little  female  dwarf,  Hilany  Agyba  of  Sinai, 
described  by  Jaest  and  cited  by  Deniker,*  15  inches  high  (0.38  m.— 
the  average  length  of  the  Italian  child  at  birth  is  0.50  m.  =  19  1/2 
in.),  and  on  the  other,  the  giant  Finlander,  Caianus,  cited  by 
Topinardf,  9  ft.  31/2  in.  in  height  (2.83);  the  two  extremes  of 
human  stature  would  accordingly  bear  a  ratio  of  1:7.  On  the 
other  hand,  Quetelett  gives  the  two  extremes  as  being  relatively 
1 :6 — namely,  the  Swedish  giant  who  was  one  of  the  guardsmen 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  and  was  2.523  m.  tall  (8  ft.  3  in.);  and 
the  dwarf  cited  by  Buffon,  0.43  m.  in  height  (16  3/4  in.). 

When  there  is  occasion  for  applying  the  terms  tall  or  low 
stature  to  individuals  of  our  own  race,  it  is  necessary  at  the 
same  time  to  establish  limits  that  will  determine  the  precise 
meaning  of  such  terms.  Livi§  gives  as  the  average  stature  for 
Italians  1.65  m.  (5  ft.  5  in.),  and  speaking  authoritatively  as 
the  leading  statistician  in  Anthropology,  establishes  the  following 
limits : 


STATURE  OF  ITALIANS   (LIVI) 
Averages  Determining  The  Terminology  of  Stature 


1.60    m.     and    below,    low 
statures. 


1.65  m.  and  all  between     1.70    m.    and    above,    tall 
1.60-1.70,  mean  statures       statures. 


The  individual  extremes  among  the  low  statures  tend  to  ap- 
proach the  average  stature  of  the  Japanese  race  (1.55  m.),  and  those 
among  the  high  statures  approach  the  Anglo-Saxon  average  (the 
Scotch  =  1.79  m.) 

There  is  much  to  interest  us  in  studying  the  distribution  of 
statures  in  Italy. 

In  Livi's  great  charts,  he  has  marked  in  blue  those  regions 
where  the  prevailing  percentage  of  stature  is  high  (1.70  m.  and 
upward),  and  in  red  those  where  the  low  statures  prevail  (1.60  m. 
and  below;  and  the  varying  intensity  of  colouration  indicates 
the  greater  or  lesser  prevalence  of  the  high  or  low  statures. 

*  DENIKER,  Races  et  peuples  de  la  terre. 

t  TOPINAKD,  Elementi  di  Antropologia. 

%  QUITS' LET,  Proporzioni  medie  (mean  Proportions). 

§  LIVI,  Antropometria  Militare  (Military  Anthropometry). 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     111 

Thus  it  becomes  evident  in  one  glance  of  the  eye  that  tall  stat- 
ures prevail  in  northern  Italy  and  low  statures  in  the  south;  while 
the  maximum  of  low  stature  (indicated  by  the  most  intense  red) 
is  found  in  the  islands,  and  especially  in  Sardinia. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  central  districts  of  Italy  (the  Marches, 
Umbria,  Latium)  the  two  colours  fade  out ;  this  indicates  that  here 
all  notable  prevalence  of  stature,  either  tall  or  low,  ceases;  conse- 
quently we  have  here,  as  the  prevailing  norm,  the  mean  stature 
(1.65  m.). 

Anyone  wishing  to  analyse  the  natural  distribution  of  stature, 
has  only  to  study  these  charts  by  Livi,  which  are  worked  out  with 
great  minuteness.  If  a  study  of  this  sort,  extending  over  the  entire 
peninsula,  seems  too  great  an  undertaking,  it  is  at  least  advisable 
for  a  teacher  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  local  distribution  of 
stature;  in  order  that  when  it  becomes  his  duty  to  judge  of  the 
stature  of  pupils  in  his  school  he  will  have  the  necessary  idea 
regarding  the  biological  (racial)  basis  on  which  so  important  an 
anthropological  datum  can  oscillate. 

Livi's  charts,  based  upon  the  male  stature,  correspond  almost 
perfectly  with  my  own  regional  charts  based  upon  the  average 
statures  of  the  women  of  Latium.  Both  Livi  and  I  find  that  in 
the  region  of  Latium  the  tall  statures  prevail  north  of  the  Tiber, 
especially  toward  the  confines  of  Umbria;  while  the  lowest  statures 
are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  valley  of  the  Tiber,  toward 
the  sea  (Castelli  Romani).  That  is  to  say,  the  stature  becomes 
lower  from  north  to  south,  and  from  the  mountains  toward  the 
sea.  Furthermore,  there  exist  certain  nuclei  of  pure  race,  such  as 
at  Orte  and  in  Castelli  Romani,  where  we  may  find  the  extremes 
of  average  stature,  which  for  women  are  found  to  be  1.61  m.  at 
Orte,  and  1.47  m.  at  Castelli  Romani;  while  the  extreme  individual 
statures,  according  to  my  figures,  oscillate  between  1.42  m  (Castelli) 
and  1.70  m  (Orte).  It  would  be  helpful  to  the  teachers  of  Rome  and 
Latium,  if  they  would  acquire  some  idea  regarding  the  racial  types 
of  the  district,  by  studying  my  work  on  the  Physical  Characteristics 
of  the  young  Women  of  Latium,  which  is  the  only  work  on  regional 
anthropology  taken  directly  from  life  that  so  far  exists  in  anthro- 
pologic  literature.* 

The  Stature  in  Relation  to  Sex. — It  is  sufficient  to  point  out  that 
the  stature  varies  normally  between  the  sexes,  so  that  the  average 

*  MONTESSORI,  Caratteri  fisici  delle  giovani  donne  del  Lazio. 


112  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

figures  differ  by  about  10  centimetres  (nearly  4  in.)  in  the  direction 
of  a  lower  stature  for  woman. 


Nothwithstanding  that  growth  is  an  evolution,  it  manifests 
itself  also  by  an  absolute  augmentation  of  mass;  and  the  linear  index 
of  such  augmentation  is  given  by  the  growth  in  stature,  or  by  its 
variations  at  different  ages. 

This  exceedingly  important  measurement  ought  to  be  taken 
in  the  case  of  all  pupils;  and  undoubtedly  in  the  course  of  time 
anthropometry  will  form  a  part  of  our  school  equipment;  because, 
by  following  the  increase  of  stature  in  a  child,  we  follow  his  phys- 
ical development. 

In  Chapter  VII,  in  which  the  technique  of  the  stature  is  dis- 
cussed, there  is  a  graphic  representation  of  the  annual  increase  of 
stature  in  the  two  sexes;  the  upper  parabolic  line  refers  to  the 
male  sex,  and  the  lower  one  to  the  female.  On  the  vertical  line 
are  marked  the  measures  of  growth,  from  the  base  upward,  and 
on  the  horisontal  line  the  ages.  All  the  dotted  vertical  lines 
which  rise  from  the  horizontal,  each  corresponding  to  a  successive 
year  of  life,  and  stop  at  the  parabolic  line,  represent  the  relative 
proportion  of  stature  from  year  to  year;  while  the  parabola 
which  unites  the  extremities  of  such  lines  may  be  regarded  as  a  line 
drawn  tangent  to  the  top  of  the  head  of  an  individual  through  the 
successive  periods  of  his  life. 

If  we  analyse  this  table,  we  find  that  the  greatest  increase  in 
stature  takes  place  during  the  first  year;  in  fact,  a  child  which  at 
birth  has  an  average  length  of  body  of  0.50  m.  for  males,  and 
0.48  m.  for  females  (the  new-born  child  does  not  have  stature, 
but  only  length  of  body,  since  it  has  not  yet  acquired  an  erect 
position)  has  by  the  end  of  the  first  year  augmented  the  length 
of  body  by  20  centimetres,  which  gives  an  average  length  of  0.70  m. 
In  no  other  year  of  life  will  the  stature  acquire  so  notable  an 
increase;  it  is  very  important  for  mothers  to  watch  the  growth 
of  the  child  during  this  first  year  of  its  life;  and  the  following 
figures  may  be  useful  for  comparison: 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  maximum  increase  takes  place  during 
the  first  four  months — especially  in  the  first  month  (4  cm.  = 
1.57  in.)  the  rate  diminishing  from  this  point  up  to  the  fourth 
month  (2  cm.  =  0.78  in.),  after  which  the  monthly  increase  remains 
steadily  at  one  centimetre  (0.39  in.). 


;>.  . 


FIG.  22. — New-born  child,  seen  from  in  front  and  from  behind.     (Stratz.) 


1  year.  8  months.  4  months.  at  birth. 

FIG.  23. — Skeleton  of  a  child  from  birth  to  the  age  of  one  year. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     113 

GROWTH  IN  LENGTH  OF  BODY  DURING  THE  FIRST  YEAR  OF  LIFE 

(FROM  FIGUEIRA) 


Age  in  months 

Length  of  body  in 
metres 

Monthly  increase 

0 

0.50 

0 

1 

0.54 

4 

2 

0.57 

3 

3 

0.60 

3 

4 

0.62 

2 

5 

0.63 

1 

6 

0.64 

1 

7 

0.65 

1 

8 

0.66 

1 

9 

0.67 

1 

10 

0.68 

1 

11 

0.69 

1 

12 

0.70 

1 

The  same  facts  appear  from  the  combination  picture  given 
by  Stratz,  showing  an  infant's  skeleton  at  four-month  intervals 
from  birth  to  the  end  of  the  first  year. 

During  the  second  year  of  life,  the  increase  in  stature  is  about 
one-half  that  of  the  preceding  year,  that  is,  about  10  cm.  (4  in.), 
so  that  at  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  child  attains  a  height  of 
about  80  cm.  (31  1/2  in.).  After  this,  the  annual  increase  dimin- 
ishes in  intensity  (see  "  Figures  of  the  increase  of  stature  according 
to  Que"telet  and  other  authors,"  in  the  technical  part,  Chapter  VII), 
as  is  shown  by  the  horizontal  dotted  lines,  which,  starting  from  a 
vertical  line  at  points  corresponding  to  the  height  of  various 
statures,  represent  by  the  intervals  of  space  between  them  the 
successive  growth  from  year  to  year. 

This  increase  is  not  regular,  but  proceeds  by  periodic  impulses 
that  in  early  childhood  seem  to  recur  at  intervals  of  three  years. 

Thus  for  example  the  increase 

between  0-  3  years  of  age  is  successively  20,  10,  6  cm. 
between  3-  6  years  of  age  is  successively  7,  6,  5  cm. 
between  6-  9  years  of  age  is  successively  7,  6,  5  cm. 
between  9-12  years  of  age  is  successively  6,  4,  3  cm. 

Accordingly  we  have  a  triennial  rhythm,  decreasing  throughout 
the  whole  period  of  childhood;  the  maximum  increase  is  in  the 
first  triennium,  the  second  and  third  periods  of  three  years  cor- 


114  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

respond  exactly,  while  the  last  period  shows  a  lowered  rate  of 
increase. 

At  this  point  the  period  of  approaching  puberty  begins  (13 
years  for  boys),  after  which  the  rate  of  increase  becomes  more 
rapid  than  it  had  been  during  the  second  or  third  period,  attaining 
its  maximum  during  the  years  13-15;  to  be  specific,  the  rate  from 
13  to  18  is  successively  4,  8,  7,  5,  6,  3  cm. 

When  the  period  of  puberty  is  ended  (18  years),  the  rate  of 
growth  is  much  slower;  in  fact,  during  the  two  following  years 
(18  to  20)  it  hardly  attains  one  centimetre. 

Nevertheless,  the  stature  continues  to  increase  up  to  the 
twenty-fifth  year;  according  to  Quetelet's  figures,  the  average 
male  stature  at  the  age  of  eighteen  is  1.70  m.  (in  Belgium)  and  at 
twenty-one  it  is  1.72  m. 

From  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  the  stature  remains  stable; 
this  is  the  adult  age,  the  full  attainment  of  maturity;  at  the  age  of 
forty  the  period  of  involution  insensibly  begins,  and  after  fifty 
in  the  case  of  women,  and  sixty  in  the  case  of  men,  the  stature 
begins  insensibly  to  decrease;  a  decrease  which  becomes  more 
marked  with  the  advance  of  age,  corresponding  to  an  anatomical 
diminution  of  the  soft  parts  interposed  between  the  bones  in  the 
sum  of  parts  that  make  up  the  stature;  more  especially  the  inter- 
vertebral  disks;  -and  in  connection  with  this  phenomenon  the 
vertebral  column  tends  to  become  more  curved. 

According  to  Quetelet's  figures,  at  the  age  of  eighty  the  average 
male  stature  is  1.61  m.  (5  ft.  3  2/5  in.),  a  stature  corresponding  to 
that  of  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Accordingly,  the  variations  in  stature  throughout  the  different 
periods  of  life  are  neither  a  growth  nor  an  evolution,  but  a  parabolic 
curve,  including  evolution  and  involution.  This  curve  represents 
the  true  human  stature;  the  measurements  taken  successively 
from  year  to  year  representing  nothing  more  than  transitory 
episodes  in  the  individual  life. 

Man,  as  he  really  is,  we  may  represent  by  portraits  taken 
successively  from  time  to  time,  from  his  birth  until  his  death: 
the  occasional  photograph  which  it  is  the  custom  to  have  taken 
represents  nothing;  following  no  rule,  it  seizes  a  fugitive  instant 
in  the  life  of  an  individual,  who  is  never  a  fixed  quantity  but  is 
constantly  in  transition  during  the  whole  course  of  his  existence. 
So  that  the  habit  of  taking  a  picture  annually  on  a  child's  birthday 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     115 

is  an  excellent  one  if  we  wish  to  preserve  a  true  likeness;  and  this 
practice  is  recommended  in  pedagogic  anthropology,  when  it  is 
desired  to  preserve  the  biographic  history  of  the  pupil. 

It  is  interesting  to  study,  side  by  side  with  the  growth  of 
stature  and  the  marked  rhythms  and  periods  that  constitute  its 
laws,  the  phenomenon  of  general  mortality  in  its  relation  to  age. 

Lexis  gives  the  following  curve  of  general  mortality :  the  hori- 
zontal line  marks  the  years  and  the  vertical  line  the  corresponding 
number  of  deaths,  while  the  curved  line  shows  the  progress  of  mor- 
tality, and  the  highest  points  in  the  curve  indicate  the  maximum 
mortality.  It  is  highest  of  all  during  the  first  year  and  in  general 
during  early  childhood,  and  is  steadily  lowered  to  a  point  corre- 
sponding to  the  ages  from  ten  to  thirteen,  after  which  it  rises  again. 

Let  us  examine  the  curve  up  to  this  point,  since  it  has  a  bearing 
upon  our  school  work.  We  can  prove  that  the  maximum  mortality 
J 


1st  year         10-13  years  70  years 

FIG.  24. — Curve  of  general  mortality  (Lexis). 

corresponds  to  the  maximum  individual  growth;  in  other  words, 
an  organism  in  rapid  evolution  is  exposed  to  death,  its  powers  of 
immunity  to  infective  diseases  are  weakened;  it  constitutes  what 
in  medical  parlance  is  known  as  a  locus  minoris  resistentice. 

In  that  period  of  calm  in  growth,  which  would  seem  to  be  a 
repose  preceding  the  evolution  of  puberty,  mortality  is  at  the 
lowest;  only  to  rise  again  rapidly  during  the  period  of  puberty; 
while  the  rise  becomes  less  rapid  after  the  eighteenth  year,  not- 
withstanding that  after  that  age  mankind  in  general  are  exposed, 
in  their  struggle  for  existence,  to  many  causes  of  death  that  did 
not  exist  during  the  preceding  years.  Toward  the  age  of  seventy 
the  line  of  mortality  attains  another  apex,  because  the  age  of 
normal  death  is  reached ;  after  which  it  drops  precipitously  because 
of  the  lack  of  survivers. 


116  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

From  these  facts  we  may  deduce  certain  very  important  prin- 
ciples that  throw  useful  light  upon  pedagogy:  there  are  certain 
ages  at  which  even  the  strong  are  weak;  and  their  weakness  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  exposes  the  individual  to  death. 

Now,  whenever  the  phenomenon  of  mortality  occurs  it  is  always 
an  indication  of  impoverishment  in  the  survivors.  For  example,  of 
every  one  person  that  dies,  many  persons  have  been  ill  who  have 
recovered  from  then1  illness;  but  there  are  still  many  others  who, 
although  they  did  not  actually  fall  ill,  were  weakened  even  though 
they  passed  through  the  peril  unharmed. 

In  short,  for  each  death,  which  represents  a  final  disaster,  there 
are  many  victims.  And  whenever  there  is  a  rise  in  the  phenomenon 
of  mortality  in  connection  with  any  one  age,  it  is  our  duty  to  give 
special  attention  to  those  individuals  who  are  not  only  weak  in 
themselves,  but  whom  the  social  causes  affecting  them  tend  to 
weaken  still  more  and  push  onward  toward  illness  and  death. 
Whenever  there  are  many  deaths,  there  are  undoubtedly  also 
many  sufferers. 

Now,  in  pedagogy  we  have  no  criterion  to  guide  us  in  this 
matter  of  respecting  the  weaknesses  characteristic  of  the  various  ages, 
as,  for  example,  that  of  early  infancy  and  of  the  age  of  puberty. 

With  the  most  cruel  blindness  we  punish  and  discourage  the 
lad  who,  having  reached  the  age  of  puberty,  no  longer  makes  the 
progress  in  his  studies  that  rendered  him  the  brilliant  champion 
during  the  period  of  physiological  repose  in  his  growth ;  and  instead 
of  regarding  this  as  a  psychic  indication  of  a  great  physiological 
transformation  that  it  is  necessary  to  protect,  we  urge  on  the 
organism  to  enforced  effort,  without  even  suspecting  that,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  degree  of  resistance  of  our  pupil,  we  may  be  doing 
our  share  to  induce  in  him  a  permanent  weakness,  or  an  arrest  of 
development,  or  disease  and  death. 

Our  responsibility  as  educators  is  great,  because  we  have  the 
threads  of  life  entrusted  to  our  care;  man  represents  a  continuous 
transition  through  successive  forms,  and  each  following  period  has 
been  prepared  for  by  the  one  preceding. 

Whenever  we  have  the  misfortune  to  concur  in  weakening  a 
child,  we  touch  that  parabolic  line  traced  in  the  graphic  chart  of 
stature,  and  standing  as  an  index  of  the  life  of  the  body,  and  we 
give  it  a  shock  throughout  its  whole  length ;  it  may  either  be  shat- 
tered or  be  brought  down  to  a  lower  grade. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     117 

But  the  life  of  an  individual  does  not  contain  merely  that 
individual  alone;  the  cycle  of  the  stature  with  its  violent  period  of 
puberty  and  the  perfect  physiological  repose  corresponding  to  the 
years  from  25  to  36,  or  even  45,  indicates  the  eternity  of  the  in- 
dividual in  the  species:  his  maturity  for  reproduction.  Man  in  his 
progress  through  the  different  levels  of  height,  as  indicated  on  the 
graphic  chart  of  stature,  does  not  pass  through  them  without  re- 
producing himself,  save  in  exceptional  cases;  he  commences  the 
ascent  alone,  but  in  his  descent  he  attains  the  majesty  of  a  creator 
who  leaves  behind  him  the  immortal  works  of  his  own  creation. 
Well,  even  the  capacity  of  normal  reproduction,  and  of  begetting 
a  strong  species,  is  related  to  the  normal  cycle  of  life:  whoever 
weakens  a  child  and  puts  a  strain  upon  the  threads  of  its  existence, 
starts  a  vibration  that  will  be  felt  throughout  posterity. 

The  parabolic  cycle  of  stature  shows  us  which  is  the  most 
favourable  period  for  the  reproduction  of  the  species ;  it  is  undoubt- 
edly that  period  that  stands  at  the  highest  apex  of  the  curve,  and 
at  which  the  organism  has  reached  an  almost  absolute  peace,  as  if 
forgetful  of  itself,  in  order  to  provide  for  its  eternity.  When  it 
has  completed  its  period  of  evolution,  during  which  the  organism 
shows  that  it  has  not  yet  matured;  and  before  the  commencement 
of  involution,  in  which  period  the  organism  is  slowly  preparing  for 
departure — that  is  the  moment  when  man  may  or  rather  ought  to 
procreate  his  species. 

Careful  forethought  not  to  produce  immature  or  feeble  fruit, 
will  form  part  of  the  coming  man's  regard  for  his  posterity.  A 
new  moral  era  is  maturing,  that  is  giving  birth  to  a  solidarity, 
not  only  between  all  living  beings,  but  including  also  those  future 
beings  who  are  as  yet  unborn;  but  for  whose  existence  the  living 
man  of  to-day  is  preparing  through  his  care  of  his  own  strength  and 
his  own  virtue.  To  have  intentionally  begotten  a  son  better  than 
himself  will  be  a  proud  victory  for  the  man  who  has  attained  the 
higher  sexual  morality;  and  such  pride  will  be  no  less  keen  than 
that  of  the  artist,  who  by  perfecting  his  marvelous  talents  has 
created  a  masterpiece. 

The  statistics  collected  by  Que'te'let  demonstrate  that  "too  pre- 
cocious marriages  either  occasion  sterility  or  produce  children  that 
have  a  smaller  probability  of  living." 

They  prove  furthermore  that  the  number  of  children  who  die 
is  largest  in  marriages  contracted  at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  earlier, 


118 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


and  becomes  lowest  among  the  children  born  of  marriages  con- 
tracted between  the  years  of  29  and  32.  During  these  years 
also  the  parents  are  most  fertile:  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
tables : 

SANDLER'S  FIGURES  BASED  ON  THE  FAMILIES  OF  ENGLISH    PEERS 


Age  of  parents  at 
marriage 

Percentage  of 
deaths  of  children 
before  attaining 
marriageable  age 

Average  births  to 
each  marriage 

Percentage  of 
births  to  each 
death 

15  years  

35 

4.40 

0.283 

16—19  years  • 

20 

4  63 

0  208 

20-23  years 

19 

5  21 

0  188 

24-27  years  

12 

5  43 

1.171 

Age  at  the  time  of 
child's  birth 


Percentage  of  deaths  to 
each  birth 


Average  number  of  births 
in  one  year  of  marriage 


16  years  

0.44 

0.46 

17-20  years  

0  43 

0  50 

21-24  years  

0.42 

0  52 

25-28  years        

0  41 

0  55 

29-32  years  

0  40 

0.59 

The  results  of  a  recent  research  show  that  famous  men  have 
hardly  ever  been  the  first-born,  and  that  the  great  majority  were 
begotten  of  parents  who  were  at  the  time  between  the  ages  of  25 
and  36  years. 

Variations  of  Stature  with  Age,  According  to  the  Sexes. — The 
general  laws  of  the  growth  and  involution  of  stature  are  pretty 
nearly  the  same  for  the  two  sexes.  The  female  stature,  beginning 
at  birth,  averages  throughout  life  somewhat  less  than  the  male. 

But  since  the  development  of  puberty  takes  place  earlier  in 
woman  than  in  man,  the  female  child  manifests  the  characteristic 
increase  in  stature  at  an  earlier  age  than  the  male;  consequently 
at  that  age  (about  eleven)  she  overtakes  him,  and  for  the  time 
being  both  boy  and  girl  are  equal  in  stature.  But  as  soon  as  the 
boy  enters  upon  the  period  of  puberty,  he  rapidly  surpasses  the 
girl,  and  his  stature  henceforth  steadily  maintains  a  superiority  of 
about  ten  centimetres  (nearly  four  inches),  as  is  shown  by  the 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     119 

deviations  between  the  two  parabolic  curves,  representing  the 
variations  of  stature  in  the  two  sexes.  Even  the  involution  of 
stature  occurs  precociously  in  women,  as  compared  with  man. 

VARIATIONS  IN  STATURE  DUE  TO  MECHANICAL  CAUSES  OF 
ADAPTATION  TO  ENVIRONMENT 

Variations  due  to  Mechanical  Causes.  Transitory  and  Permanent 
Variations.  Deformations. — The  individual  stature  is  not  a  fixed 
quantity  at  all  hours  of  the  day;  but  it  varies  by  several  millimetres 
under  the  influence  of  mechanical  causes  connected  with  the  habits 
of  daily  life.  In  the  morning  we  are  slightly  taller  than  at  night 
(by  a  fraction  of  a  centimetre) :  in  consequence  of  remaining  on 
foot  a  good  deal  of  the  time  during  the  day,  our  stature  is  gradually 
lowered.  This  is  contrary  to  the  popular  belief  that  "while  we 
stand  up  our  stature  grows." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  erect  position  the  soft  tissues  that 
form  part  of  the  total  stature  are  under  constant  pressure;  but 
being  elastic,  they  resume  their  previous  proportions  after  prolonged 
rest  in  a  horizontal  position. 

Consequently  at  night,  especially  if  we  have  taken  a  long  walk, 
or  danced,  we  are  shorter  than  in  the  morning  after  a  long  sleep; 
the  act  of  stretching  the  limbs  in  the  morning  completes  the  work 
of  restoring  the  articular  cartilages  to  their  proper  limits  of  elas- 
ticity. Nevertheless,  according  to  the  mechanical  theory  accepted 
by  Manouvrier,  persons  who  are  habituated  from  childhood  to 
stand  on  foot  much  of  the  time  (labourers)  interfere  with  the  free 
growth  of  the  long  bones  in  the  direction  of  length  and  at  the  same 
time  augment  the  growth  in  thickness;  hence  the  skeleton  is 
rendered  definitely  shorter  in  its  segments  as  well  as  in  its  bones 
(i.e.,  a  shallower  pelvis,  shorter  limbs,  etc.).  The  result  is  a  stocky 
type  with  robust  muscles:  the  europlastic  type,  which  is  found 
among  labourers.  On  the  contrary,  a  person  who  spends  much  time 
reclining  on  sofas  among  cushions,  and  taking  abundant  nutriment, 
is  likely  to  tend  toward  the  opposite  extreme;  bones  long  and  slen- 
der, the  skeleton  tall  in  all  its  segments,  the  muscular  system 
delicate;  this  is  the  macroplastic  or  aristocratic  type.  According 
to  Manouvrier,  when  a  person  has  a  long,  slow  convalescence  after 
a  protracted  infectious  malady  such  as  typhoid,  recumbent  much 
of  the  time  and  subjected  to  a  highly  nutritive  diet,  it  may  happen, 
especially  if  he  has  reached  the  period  of  puberty  at  which  a  rapid 


120  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

osteogenesis  naturally  takes  place  in  the  cartilages  of  the  long 
bones,  that  he  will  not  only  become  notably  taller,  but  will  even 
acquire  the  macroplastic  type. 

The  macroplastic  type  is  artistically  more  beautiful,  but  the 
europlastic  type  is  physiologically  more  useful. 

It  is  not  only  the  erect  position  that  tends  to  reduce  the  stature, 
but  the  sitting  posture  as  well.  In  fact,  whether  the  pelvis  is  sup- 
ported by  the  lower  limbs  or  by  a  chair,  the  intervertebral  disks 
are  in  either  case  compressed  by  the  weight  of  the  bust  as  a  whole. 
If,  for  example,  children  are  obliged,  during  the  period  of  growth, 
to  remain  long  at  a  time  in  a  sitting  posture,  the  limbs  may  freely 
lengthen,  while  the  bust  is  impeded  in  its  free  growth,  and  the 
result  may  be  an  artificial  tendency  toward  macroscelia.  This  is 
why  children  are  more  inclined  than  adults  to  throw  themselves 
upon  the  ground,  to  lie  down,  to  cut  capers,  in  other  words  to 
restore  the  elasticity  of  their  joints,  and  overcome  the  compression 
of  bones  and  cartilages.  Accordingly,  such  variations  of  stature 
recur  habitually  and  are  transitory,  and  since  they  are  associated 
with  the  customary  attitudes  of  daily  life,  they  are  physiological. 

But  if  special  causes  should  aggravate  such  physiological  condi- 
tions, and  should  recur  so  often  as  not  to  permit  the  cartilages  to 
return  completely  to  their  original  condition,  in  such  a  case  per- 
manent variations  of  stature  might  result,  and  even  morphological 
deviations  of  the  skeleton.  For  example,  a  porter  who  habitually 
carries  heavy  weights  on  his  head,  may  definitely  lower  his  stature; 
and  in  the  case  of  a  young  boy,  the  interference  with  the  growth  of 
the  long  bones  through  compression  exerted  from  above  down- 
ward, may  produce  an  actual  arrest  of  development  of  the  limbs 
and  spinal  column,  presenting  all  the  symptoms  of  rickets.  Wit- 
ness certain  consequences  of  "child-labour"  chief  among  which  must 
be  mentioned  the  deformities  of  the  carusi  [victims  of  child-labour, 
who  from  an  early  age  toil  up  the  succession  of  ladders,  bearing 
heavy  burdens  of  sulphur  from  the  mines  below.*]  in  the  Sicil- 
ian sulphur  mines,  f  As  a  general  rule,  all  cramped  positions  that 
are  a  necessary  condition  of  labour,  if  they  surpass  the  limits  of  resist- 
ance and  elasticity  of  the  human  frame,  and  especially  if  they  op- 
erate during  periods  of  life  when  the  skeleton  is  in  process  of  forma- 
tion, result  in  deformities,  and  when  the  skeleton  is  deformed,  the 

*  Translator's  note. 

t  Fig.  25  and  those  following  it,  dealing  with  deformities  resulting  from  labour,  are  taken 
from  Pieraccini's  great  work,  The  Pathology  of  Labour. 


FIG.  25. — Vincenzo  Militella  of  Lercara,  a  FIG.  26 — Aged  field  labourer. 

Sicilian  caruso. 


FIG.  27.  FIG.  28. 

Attitude  of  woman  working  in  the  rice  fields  as  seen  from  the  right  and  left  sides. 


FIG.  29. — A  gang  of  eight  workers  in  the  rice  fields. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     121 

internal  organs  and  hence  the  general  functional  powers  of  the 
whole  organism,  suffer  even  greater  alteration. 

Consider  the  postures  that  miners  must  endure,  or  as  Pierac- 
cini  phrases  it,  their  "  disastrous  attitudes." 

The  transport  galleries  are  ordinarily  too  low  to  permit  a  man 
of  average  height  to  walk  erect;  along  these  galleries  little  trans- 
port-wagons are  run  by  hand,  excepting  where  the  carrying  is 
done  on  the  backs  of  the  men  themselves. 

"Even  in  the  front  of  the  advance  tunnels  and  in  the  galleries 
that  are  being  worked,  miners  are  to  be  seen  in  the  most  incon- 
gruous attitudes.  These  anomalous  positions  of  the  body  main- 
tained throughout  long  hours  of  toil  react  upon  the  functional  ac- 
tion of  the  heart  and  lungs,  upon  the  stomach  and  intestines  in 
the  proper  performance  of  their  tasks,  and  result  in  producing 
hernia,  varicose  veins  and  eventually  deformities  of  the  skeleton 
(vertebral  column,  thorax)."* 

Field  labourers  also  (Fig.  26)  become  permanently  deformed, 
with  diminution  of  stature,  from  remaining  too  long  bent  over  in 
the  act  of  hoeing  or  reaping.  But  a  still  more  painful  labour  is  that 
of  the  women  in  the  rice  fields  during  the  period  when  the  weeding 
is  done. 

The  position  necessitated  by  this  work  requires  a  strained  and 
prolonged  dorsal  flexion  of  the  vertebral  column,  accompanied  by 
a  strain  on  the  lower  dorsal  nerves;  great  elasticity  is  required  to 
endure  a  position  so  painful  and  so  apt  to  induce  lumbago;  only 
young  women  can  endure  it,  and  even  they  become  deformed,  and 
suffer  seriously  from  anemia,  intestinal  maladies  and  diseases  of 
the  uterus,  which  predispose  them  to  abortion  or  sterility  (Figs. 
27,  28,  29). 

Stone  breakers  also  contract  painful  diseases  and  deformities 
from  their  work.  They  are  constantly  bowed  over  their  task, 
performing  a  rhythmic,  alternating  movement  of  flexion,  ex- 
tension and  torsion  of  the  trunk  upon  itself,  while  at  the  same 
time  there  is  a  slight  undulation  in  a  backward  and  forward  direc- 
tion, accompanying  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  arm  holding  the 
hammer.  These  movements  of  extension  and  flexion  of  the  trunk 
involve  the  whole  vertebral  column,  while  the  pelvis  remains  prac- 
tically motionless.  "At  the  end  of  the  day  they  rise  from  their 
task  bowed  over  and  they  walk  home  bowed  over,  holding  the  ver- 

*  PlERACCINI,  Op.  tit. 


122  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tebral  column  rigid;  any  attempt  to  force  the  trunk  into  an  erect 
position  is  extremely  painful.  In  the  morning  they  return  to 
their  work  with  their  loins  still  aching."  And  among  these  stone 
breakers  there  are  young  men,  some  of  them  mere  boys !  And  when 
we  think  that  these  injurious  attitudes  are  coupled  with  malnutri- 
tion, we  must  realise  the  extent  of  the  organic  disaster  that  accom- 
panies diminution  of  stature  as  a  result  of  adaptation  to  labour. 

We  are  naturally  horrified  at  such  conditions  enforced  upon  a 
certain  portion  of  humanity;  and  we  pray  for  a  time  to  come  when 
machinery  will  have  universally  replaced  human  labour,  in  trans- 
portation, in  stone-breaking,  and  in  reaping,  and  when  children 
will  be  spared  from  hard  and  deforming  toil. 

But  how  is  it  that  while  we  are  so  sympathetic  regarding  con- 
ditions at  a  distance  from  us,  we  remain  unconscious  of  similar 
conditions,  that  are  close  beside  us,  and  of  which  we  are  the  direct- 
ors, the  cruel  enforcers,  the  masters? 

In  the  near  future,  I  hope  that  people  will  tell  with  amaze- 
ment, as  if  citing  a  condition  of  inferior  civilisation,  how  the 
school  children,  up  to  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  repre- 
sented one  category  of  those  "deformed  by  prolonged  and  enforced 
labour  in  injurious  positions!" 

Such  studies  in  school  hygiene  as  deal  with  the  type  of  school 
benches,  designed  to  minimise  the  danger  of  deformities  of  the 
vertebral  column  in  children — will,  I  hope,  be  regarded  by  the 
coming  generations  with  the  most  utter  amazement!  And  the 
school  benches  of  to-day  will  find  their  place  in  museums,  and 
people  will  go  to  look  at  them  as  if  they  were  relics  of  bygone 
barbarism,  just  as  we  now  visit  the  collections  from  old-time 
insane  asylums,  of  series  of  complicated  instruments  of  wood  and 
iron  that  in  bygone  centuries  were  considered  necessary  for  main- 
taining discipline  among  the  insane. 

What  in  the  world  would  we  say,  if  somebody  should  propose, 
in  order  to  obviate  the  deformities  and  physiological  injuries  of 
labourers,  that  certain  mechanisms  should  be  applied  to  them  in- 
dividually for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  the  harm?  Imagine  a 
law  being  proposed,  to  the  effect  that  all  miners  should  be  obliged 
to  wear  trusses,  to  keep  their  viscera  from  breaking  loose,  as  a 
result  of  prolonged  compression!  What  would  we  think  of  such 
reforms  and  such  a  path  toward  an  orthopedic  state  of  society? 

Our  way  toward  progress  and  higher  civilisation  is  a  very 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     123 

different  one.  To  remove  man  from  torturing  toil  that  twists 
the  bones  and  undermines  the  health — such  is  the  goal  that  it  is 
our  duty  to  set  before  us! 

For  the  deformed  vertebral  column  is  the  extreme  sign  of  a 
great  accumulation  of  evils;  the  internal  organs  are  correspond- 
ingly affected  with  disorders  fatal  to  the  entire  organism;  but 
even  greater  is  the  corresponding  harm  done  to  the  human  soul! 
What  we  want  is  not  only  that  the  bones  shall  not  be  thrown  out 
of  their  eurhythmic  harmony,  but  that  the  souls  of  the  labourers 
shall  be  freed  from  the  inhuman  yoke  of  slavery  (progress  can  con- 
sist solely  in  a  radical  alteration  of  the  form  of  labour}. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  school,  which  is  not  limited  to  a  few 
categories  of  human  beings,  but  is  extended  to  all,  by  requirements 
of  law,  is  it  not  possible  for  us  to  adopt  a  different  attitude  of  mind? 

The  established  fact  that  the  pupils  may  even  deform  their 
skeletons  in  the  course  of  their  work,  goes  to  prove  that  this  work 
contains  some  error  in  principle  that  is  fatal  to  successive  gener- 
ations; and  so  long  as  this  principle  is  maintained,  we  may  assert 
a  priori  that  even  if,  with  the  help  of  school  benches  as  compli- 
cated and  as  costly  as  orthopedic  machines,  we  should  succeed 
in  checking  the  deformation  of  the  vertebral  column,  we  should 
fail  to  check  the  deformation  of  the  soul.  Because  whoever  is 
condemned  to  labour  that  deforms  is  a  slave. 

And  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  employ  coercive  means,  "rewards 
and  punishments,"  to  enforce  upon  children  a  condition  that  in 
their  eyes  amounts  to  serving  their  first  sentence. 

It  is  not  the  school  bench,  but  the  method  that  needs  reforming; 
it  is  not  the  ligaments  of  the  spinal  column,  but  human  life  in 
evolution  that  we  ought  to  respect,  and  lead  toward  the  attainment 
of  perfection!  Amid  the  many  banners  of  liberty  that  have  been 
raised  in  these  latter  times,  one  is  still  missing — one  which  we 
ought  to  seize  upon  as  the  standard  of  our  cause:  the  liberty  of 
the  new  generation,  which  is  groaning  in  the  slavery  of  compulsory 
education,  upon  iron-bound  benches,  emblematic  of  chains! 

I  foresee,  in  a  radical  reform  of  pedagogic  methods,  the  practi- 
cal possibility  of  taking  as  guiding  principles  the  individual  liberty 
of  the  pupil  and  a  reverential  regard  for  life.  And  I  affirm  this  all 
the  more  loudly,  because  I  have  applied  such  a  method  with  indis- 
putable success  in  the  "Children's  Houses,"  obtaining  prodigious 
results  in  the  health  and  happiness  of  the  children,  perfect  dis- 


124  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

cipline  in  the  classes,  marvelously  rapid  progress  in  studies,  and 
a  surprising  awakening  of  souls,  a  passionate  love  for  the  work. 

VARIATIONS  DUE  TO  ADAPTATION  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  CAUSES 
OF  VARIOUS  KINDS —  SOCIAL,  PHYSIOLOGICAL,  PHYSICAL, 
PSYCHIC,  PATHOLOGICAL,  ETC. 

Physiology  and  Social  Conditions. — Nutrition. — One  of  the 
effects  of  environment,  of  the  highest  importance  in  its  relation 
to  the  development  of  stature,  is  nutrition.  In  order  to  attain 
the  maximum  development  as  biologically  determined  by  hered- 
ity in  a  race,  sufficient  nutriment  is  the  first  necessity.  It  is 
a  familiar  fact  that  material  or  physiological  life  consists  essen- 
tially in  the  exchange  and  renewal  of  matter,  or  in  metabolism, 
which  is  also  a  renewal  of  vital  force. 

The  living  molecules  are  continually  breaking  up,  thus  express- 
ing in  an  active  form  forces  that  had  accumulated  in  a  potential 
form,  and  eliminating  the  rejected  matter;  only  to  form  again  by 
means  of  new  matter,  containing  potential  forces.  This  break- 
ing up  and  renewal  constitutes  the  material  of  life,  that  never 
pauses  in  its  molecular  movement;  the  cessation  of  renewal  of 
matter  is  death,  that  is,  scission  without  reparation;  consumption 
without  renewal;  and  consequently  a  rapid  disintegration  of  the 
body.  Living  matter  consists  in  metabolism,  and  is  consequently 
directly  related  to  the  nutritive  substances  which  renew  the  ele- 
ments necessary  for  continual  redintegration. 

We  may  disregard  certain  individual  potentialities,  of  a  purely 
biological  nature,  and  that  are  capable  of  manifesting  vital  forces 
of  varying  degrees  of  intensity:  but  it  may  be  asserted  as  beyond 
question  that  every  living  being,  if  he  is  to  live  according  to  his 
biological  destiny,  has  need  of  sufficient  nutrition.  This  is  not 
the  same  as  saying  that  the  food  determines  the  life  of  an  individual 
in  its  final  development,  in  the  sense  that  by  eating  in  excess  one 
may  attain  the  stature  of  a  giant,  or  an  imbecile  become  intelligent 
or  a  man  of  talent  become  a  genius.  We  all  bear  within  us,  in 
that  fertilised  germ  that  constituted  the  first  cell  of  our  organism, 
predetermined  biological  conditions,  on  which  depend  the  physical 
limits  of  our  body,  as  well  as  those  of  our  psychic  individu- 
ality. But  in  order  that  this  germ  may  develop  in  accordance 
with  its  potentiality,  it  is  necessary  that  it  shall  obtain  the  requisite 
material  from  its  environment.  Because  otherwise — and  here 


the  relation  is  direct — neither  the  volumetric  development  nor 
the  morphological  development  can  be  accomplished,  nor  the 
psychic  potentiality  express  itself;  in  other  words,  the  stature 
will  be  undersized,  in  a  body  defrauded  of  the  degree  of  beauty 
potential  in  the  germ,  and  the  muscular  forces,  in  common  with 
those  of  the  brain,  will  remain  at  a  level  of  development  below 
that  which  nature  had  intended.  Consequently,  to  deprive 
children  of  their  requisite  nutriment  is  stealing  from  life,  it  is  a 
biological  crime. 

While  we  live,  we  must  eat ;  and  while  we  labour,  that  is,  while 
we  expend  the  vital  forces,  it  is  necessary  to  repair  them.  The 
schools  should  establish  a  system  of  luncheons  for  the  pupils; 
this  is  a  principle  that  has  already  been  generally  recognised  and 
is  already  bearing  fruit. 

There  was  a  time  when  a  good  appetite  was  regarded  as  a  low 
material  instinct;  it  was  also  the  time  when  people  sang  the  praises 
of  spirituality,  but  actually  indulged  in  banquets  of  Lucullian 
lavishness.  The  vice  of  the  palate  and  the  physiological  need  of 
nourishment  were  included  under  one  and  the  same  disdain. 

To-day  science  has  shed  its  light  upon  the  true  conception  of 
nutrition  and  holds  it  to  be  the  first  necessity  of  life,  and  conse- 
quently the  first  social  problem  to  be  solved. 

From  this  point  of  view,  food  is  not  a  vulgar  material  thing, 
nor  the  dinner-table  a  place  of  debauchery.  Indeed,  there  is 
nothing  which  affords  better  proof  of  immateriality  than  the  act 
of  eating.  In  fact,  the  necessity  of  eating  is  itself  a  proof  that 
the  matter  of  which  our  body  is  composed  does  not  endure  but 
passes  like  the  fleeting  moment.  And  if  the  substance  of  our 
bodies  passes  in  this  manner,  if  life  itself  is  only  a  continual  passing 
away  of  matter,  what  greater  symbol  of  its  immateriality  and  its 
spirituality  is  there  than  the  dinner-table? 

".  .  .  the  bread  is  my  flesh  and  the  wine  is  my  blood;  do 
this  in  remembrance  of  what  life  really  is." 

Something  similar  to  this  is  being  accomplished  to-day  by  science 
in  regard  to  the  sexual  relations.  We  are  accustomed  to  consider 
the  sexual  instincts  as  something  contemptible,  material  and  low, 
praising  abstinence,  and  leaving  these  instincts  wholly  out  of  con- 
sideration in  the  course  of  education,  as  though  they  were  some- 
thing degrading,  or  even  shameful.  And  undoubtedly  our  sexual 
abuses  are  shameful,  and  shameful  also  is  the  barbaric  tolerance  of 


126  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  masses  regarding  prostitution,  seduction,  illegitimacy  and  the 
abandonment  of  new-born  children.  It  is  criminal  abuse  that 
makes  us  despise  sexual  relations,  just  as  at  one  time  excesses  of 
the  table  made  us  despise  nutrition.  But  the  day  will  come  when 
science  will  raise  to  the  dignity  of  a  new  sexual  morality  the 
physiological  function  which  to-day  is  considered  material  and 
shameful — and  that  comprehends  the  most  sublime  of  human 
conceptions.  In  it  are  to  be  found  the  words  which  ancient  races 
deposited  in  their  religious  tabernacles :  creation,  eternity,  mystery. 
And  in  it  are  also  to  be  found  the  most  sublime  conceptions  of 
modern  races:  the  destiny  of  humanity,  the  perfectionment  of  the 
human  species. 

Accordingly,  we  must  to-day  regard  the  serving  of  food  in  the 
schools  as  a  necessity  of  the  first  order;  but  it  is  well,  in  introducing 
it  into  the  schools,  to  surround  it  with  that  halo  of  gladness  and 
of  high  moral  significance  that  ought  to  accompany  all  manifes- 
tations of  life.  The  hymn  to  bread,  which  is  a  human  creation  and 
a  means  of  preserving  the  substance  of  the  human  body,  ought  to 
accompany  the  meals  of  our  new  generations  of  children.  The 
child  develops  because  the  substance  of  his  body  passes  away,  and 
the  meals  that  he  eats  symbolise  all  this:  furthermore,  they  teach 
him  to  think  of  the  vast  labour  accomplished  by  men  who,  un- 
known as  individuals,  cultivate  the  earth,  reap  the  grain,  grind  the 
flour,  and  provide  for  all  men  and  for  all  children.  Where  they 
are  and  who  they  are,  we  do  not  know;  the  bread  bears  neither 
their  name  nor  their  picture.  Like  an  impersonal  entity,  like  a 
god,  humanity  provides  for  all  the  needs  of  humanity:  and  this 
god  is  labour.  If  the  child  is  destined  some  day  to  become  him- 
self a  labourer,  who  produces  and  casts  his  products  to  humanity 
without  knowing  who  is  to  receive  his  contribution  toward  pro- 
viding for  humanity,  it  is  well  that  as  he  lifts  his  food  to  his  lips 
he  should  realise  that  he  is  contracting  a  debt  toward  society  at 
large,  and  that  he  must  give  because  he  takes;  he  must  "forgive 
debts  as  his  have  been  forgiven";  and  since  life  is  gladness,  let 
him  send  forth  a  salutation  to  the  universal  producing  power: 
"Our  Father,  give  us  our  daily  bread!" 

The  Providence  of  human  labour  rules  over  our  entire  life;  it 
gives  us  everything  that  is  necessary.  The  God  of  the  Universe, 
in  whose  train  come  cataclysms,  is  not  more  terrible  than  the  god, 
Humanity,  that  can  give  us  War  and  Famine.  While  we  give 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     127 


bread  to  the  child,  let  us  remember  that  man  does  not  live  by  bread 
alone :  because  bread  is  only  the  material  of  his  fleeting  substance. 

The  system  of  furnishing  meals  in  school  constitutes  a  chapter 
of  School  Hygiene  that  cannot  directly  concern  us.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  three  rules  of  this  hygiene  which  should  be  borne  in 
mind:  Children  should  never,  in  any  case,  drink  wine,  alcoholic 
liquors,  tea  or  coffee — in  other  words,  stimulants,  which  are 
poisons  to  their  childish  organisms.  On  the  other  hand,  children 
need  sugar,  because  sugar  has  a  great  formative  and  plastic  power; 
all  young  animals  have  sweetish  flesh  because  their  muscles,  in 
the  course  of  development,  are  extremely  rich  in  sugar.  The 
method  of  giving  sugar  to  children  should  be  as  simple  as  possible, 
such,  for  instance,  as  is  endorsed  by  the  very  successful  English 
system  of  hygiene  for  children,  which  recommends  freshly  cooked 
fruits,  sprinkled  with  sugar  or  served  with  a  little  syrup.  But  the 
substantial  nourishment  for  young  children  should  consist  of  soup 
or  broth  served  hot,  since  heat  is  as  essential  as  sugar  for  organisms 
in  the  course  of  evolution. 

The  English  recommend  soups  made  of  cereals  and  gluten,  in 
which  it  is  never  necessary  to  use  soup  stock,  just  as  it  is  never 
necessary  to  use  meat  in  children's  diet. 

That  nutrition  has  a  noteworthy  influence  upon  growth,  and 
therefore  upon  the  definitive  limits  of  stature,  is  exhaustively 
proved  by  statistics. 

In  his  brilliant  studies  of  the  poorer  classes,  Niceforo  has  col- 
lected the  following  average  statures:* 


Age 

Stature  (in  centimetres) 

Children 

Rich 

Poor 

7  years             

120 
126 
129 
134 
135 
140 
144 
150 

116 
122 
123 
128 
134 
138 
140 
146 

8  years  

9  years  

10  years  

1  1  years  

12  years.                 

13  years  

14  years.                     ... 

*ALFKEDO  NICEFORO,  Lis  classes  pauvres  (the  poorer  classes). 


128 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


from  which  it  appears  that,  in  spite  of  the  strong  biological  im- 
pulse given  by  the  attainment  of  puberty,  the  children  of  the  poor 
continue  to  show  a  stature  lower  than  that  of  the  well-to-do. 
Ales'  Hrdlic"ka  has  compiled  the  following  comparative  table  of 
the  poor  or  orphaned  children  received  into  the  asylums,  and  the 
pupils  of  the  public  schools  in  Boston : 


Stature  of  American  children:     (1)  In  asylums;  (2)  in  Boston  public  schools 


Boys 


Age  in 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

years 

(1) 

971 

1088 

1172 

1163 

1234 

1261 

1315 

1367 

1424 

1452 

1518 

(2) 

1060 

1120 

1176 

1223 

1272 

1326 

1372 

1417 

1477 

1551 

1599 

1665 

Girls 


(1) 

(2) 

1052 

1109 

1101 
1167 

1158 
1221 

1204 
1260 

1289 
1315 

1290 
1366 

1452 

1492 

1398 
1532 

1559 

1567 

Even  after  reaching  the  adult  age  these  differences  are  main- 
tained, as  may  be  shown  by  the  following  statistics  taken  from 
various  authorities: 


Average  statures  obtained  from  soldiers  (in  centimetres) 


Italians 

English 

French 

Students    and    profes- 

Professional men.    . 

175 

Students  

.  .    169 

sional  men  

167 

Merchants 

172 

Domestics 

166 

Tradesmen  

165 

Peasants 

.    171 

Day  labourers  

..   165 

Peasants  

164 

City  employees 

169 

from  which  it  appears  that  while  in  Italy  the  class  of  labourers 
having  the  lowest  stature  is  the  peasant  class,  which  lives  under 
the  most  deplorable  economic  conditions,  in  England  on  the 
contrary  it  is  the  workers  in  the  cities  who  live  under  worse  eco- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     129 

nomic  conditions  than  the  peasantry,  it  being  well  known  that  the 
English  peasant  is  the  most  prosperous  in  the  agricultural  world. 

According  to  Livi,  it  is  nutrition  which  causes  the  differences 
of  average  stature  that  are  usually  to  be  found  between  different 
social  classes,  and  those  between  the  inhabitants  of  mountains 
and  of  plains,  or  between  the  dwellers  on  the  mainland  and  on  the 
islands.  In  general  the  mountain-bred  peasants  have  a  lower 
stature  than  those  of  the  plains;  and  this  is  because  the  means  of 
procuring  food  are  fewer  and  harder  in  mountainous  regions. 

Similarly,  the  islanders,  because  of  less  ready  means  of  com- 
munication, have  less  likelihood  than  those  on  the  mainland  of 
obtaining  adequate  nutrition. 

The  same  may  be  said  regarding  the  differences  found  between 
the  statures  of  cultured  persons  and  of  the  illiterate,  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  the  latter  (the  poorer  classes). 

Students  show  the  tallest  stature  of  all,  because  they  have  in 
their  favour  the  joint  effect  of  the  two  chief  factors  of  environment 
that  influence  this  anthropological  datum:  mechanical  causes  and 
nutrition.  A  sedentary  life,  and  above  all  a  hearty  diet  both 
contribute  to  the  tall  stature  of  students,  doctors,  and  members 
of  the  liberal  professions.  In  this  respect,  the  average  figures  of 
all  the  authorities  agree,  as  appears  from  the  following  tables:* 

LIVI:  256,166  ITALIAN  SOLDIERS 


Professions  and  callings 

Average  stature  in 
centimetres 

Students  and  professional  men  

166.9 

Small  shopkeepers  and  the  like  

165.0 

Peasants  

164  3 

Blacksmiths  

165.0 

Carpenters  

165.1 

Masons  

164.8 

Tailors  and  shoemakers  

164.5 

Barbers  

164.3 

Butchers  

165.7 

Carters  

164.4 

Bakers  .    .            

164.7 

Day  labourers  in  general  

164.4 

*  Taken  from  Lrvi :    On  the  Development  of  the  Body  in  relation  to  the  profession  and  the 
social  condition.     Rome,  Voghera,  1897. 


130  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

ROBERT  AND  RAWSON:  1935  ADULT  ENGLISHMEN 


Professions  and  employments 


Average  stature  in 
centimetres 


Professional  men 

Merchants  and  tradesmen. 

Peasants  and  miners 

City  labourers 

Sedentary  workmen 

Prisoners 

Insane. . 


175.6 
172.6 
171.5 
169.2 
167.4 
168.0 
166.8 


OLORIZ:  1798  CONSCRIPTS  FROM  THE  CITY  OF  MADRID 


Professions  and  employments 


Average  stature  in 
centimetres 


Liberal  professions 

Including: 

Students 

Other  professions 

Workmen  employed  in  the  open  air. 
Workmen  employed  in  closed  rooms. 
Including: 

Tailors,  hatters  and  the  like 

Shoemakers.  . 


163.9 

164.0 
161.1 
160.7 
159.8 

159.0 
158.9 


Conditions  of  nutrition,  which  are  always  accompanied  by  a 
combination  of  other  hygienic  conditions  all  tending  toward  the 
same  effects,  have  also  an  influence  upon  the  development  of 
puberty. 

Puberty  is  retarded  by  malnutrition.  As  a  result  of  an  inquiry 
made  among  the  inmates  of  the  Pia  Barolo  Society,  which  offers  an 
asylum  to  reformed  prostitutes,  Marro*  records  that  out  of  ninety 
rescued  girls  only  those  above  the  age  of  fourteen  had  begun  to 
menstruate :  notwithstanding  that  the  normal  period  for  the  devel- 
opment of  puberty  in  Italian  women  is  between  the  years  of 
twelve  and  thirteen.  Furthermore,  among  the  girls  above  the 
age  of  fourteen,  menstruation  had  not  yet  begun  in  all  cases;  on 
the  contrary,  a  large  proportion  of  them  still  failed  to  show  the 
phenomena  of  puberty : 


*  MARBO,  Puberty. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     131 


Age  in  years 

Whole  number 

Number  menstruating 

14-15 

11 

4 

15-16 

11 

7 

16-17 

11 

8 

17-18 

8 

7 

All  the  rest  (thirty  in  number)  menstruated  for  the  first  time 
after  the  age  of  eighteen. 

Among  those  in  whom  menstruation  had  appeared  earlier, 
the  order  of  appearance  was  as  follows : 

Years 10        11         12         13         14         15         16         17 

Number 1          3          4          5        12        17          9          5 

When  we  consider  that  we  are  dealing  with  rescued  girls,  we  may 
conclude  that  direct  sexual  stimulus  does  not  facilitate  the  normal 
development  of  puberty,  but  on  the  contrary,  in  conjunction  with 
other  causes,  retards  it.  Accordingly,  we  must  not  confound 
the  normal  development  of  the  organism  with  its  disorders :  whatever 
aids  the  natural  development  of  life  is  useful  and  healthy.  There 
may  be  conditions  unfavourable  to  the  development  of  puberty, 
which  are  favourable  to  the  development  of  sexual  vices  (see, 
further  on,  the  other  causes  influencing  puberty,  and  moral  con- 
ditions in  colleges). 

In  his  work  above  cited,  Marro  compares  his  figures  obtained 
from  the  Pia  Barolo  Society  with  those  of  Dr.  Bianco*  taken  from 
78  young  girls  in  city  institutes  representing  young  women  in 
easy  circumstances: 


Date  of  first  menstruation 

Girls  in  the  Pia  Barolo 
Society. 
Percentage 

Girls  in  city  institutes  for 
the  wealthy  classes. 
Percentage 

10  years  .         ....            .... 

1  7 

11  years  

5.3 

1.3 

12  years  .-  

7.1 

13.3 

13  years  

8  9 

18.7 

14  years  

21.4 

29.3 

15  years  

30.3 

20.0 

16  years  

16  0 

8.0 

17  years  

8.9 

4.0 

*  Cited  by  PAQLIANI,  Human  Development,  according  to  age,  sex,  etc. 


132  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  cold  climate  of  Turin  retards 
puberty  (see  below) :  but  the  above  table  clearly  shows  the  preco- 
cious puberty  of  young  women  in  easy  circumstances;  in  the  great 
majority,  in  fact,  it  occurs  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  fourteen, 
with  thirteen  for  the  average;  on  the  other  hand,  the  majority  for 
reformed  prostitutes  is  between  fourteen  and  sixteen,  with  fifteen 
for  the  average. 

Besides  labour  and  nutrition,  there  are  other  factors  that  con- 
tribute to  the  development  of  stature  (which  we  regard  as  an 
index  to  the  entire  mass  of  the  body).  Such  factors  are: 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS — HEAT,  LIGHT,  ELECTRICITY 

Thermic  Conditions. — Among  the  physical  conditions  which 
may  have  an  influence  upon  the  stature,  the  thermic  conditions 
ought  to  receive  first  consideration. 

It  is  a  principle  demonstrated  by  nature  that  organisms  in 
the  course  of  evolution  have  need  of  heat.  Even  the  invertebrates, 
as  for  example  the  insects,  develop  during  the  heat  of  summer;  and 
the  eggs  of  the  higher  vertebrates  such  as  the  birds,  develop  their 
embryo  by  means  of  the  maternal  warmth.  In  placental  animals 
the  development  throughout  the  whole  embryonic  period  takes 
place  within  the  maternal  womb,  in  the  full  tide  of  animal  heat. 
In  order  to  preserve  life  in  premature  babies,  that  is,  in  those 
born  before  the  expiration  of  the  physiological  term  of  nine  months, 
incubators  have  been  constructed,  an  oven-like  arrangement  in 
which  the  child  may  be  maintained  at  a  temperature  considerably 
higher  than  would  be  possible  in  the  outside  air;  the  term  is  also 
specifically  used  of  the  structures  in  which  fertilised  hens'  eggs  are 
kept  during  the  required  period  of  time  until  the  chickens  are 
hatched. 

Accordingly  it  is  a  principle  taught  us  by  nature  that  organisms 
in  the  course  of  evolution  have  need  of  heat.  The  most  luxuriant 
vegetation,  the  most  gigantic  animals,  the  most  variegated  birds 
belong  to  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  tropics. 

How  is  this  physiological  law,  which  nature  expresses  in  such 
broad,  general  lines,  to  be  interpreted  by  us  in  the  environment  of 
the  school?  It  is  well  known  that  in  this  regard  there  are  two 
conflicting  opinions.  There  are  some  who  would  go  to  excessive 
lengths  in  protecting  small  children  from  the  cold,  by  dressing 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     133 

them  entirely  in  woolen  garments  and  keeping  their  apartments 
well  heated;  others  on  the  contrary  assert  that  the  physiological 
struggle  of  adaptation  to  the  cold  invigorates  the  infant  organism, 
and  they  advise  that  the  child's  body  should  never  be  completely 
protected,  as  for  example  that  the  legs  should  always  be  left  bare, 
that  the  child  should  be  lightly  clad,  that  his  apartments  should 
not  be  heated,  etc. 

Furthermore,  it  used  to  be  held  in  the  pietistic  schools,  and  still 
is  to  some  extent,  that  warmth  had  a  demoralising  influence,  inas- 
much as  it  tended  to  enervate  both  mind  and  body. 

We  educators  cannot  fail  to  be  interested  in  such  a  discussion. 
As  often  happens  in  physiological  arguments,  the  two  opposite 
contentions  each  contain  a  part  of  the  truth.  In  order  to  get  at 
the  truth  of  the  matter,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  two  widely 
separated  facts :  on  the  one  hand,  physiological  exercise  in  the  form 
of  thermal  gymnastics,  and  on  the  other,  the  development  of  organ- 
isms in  a  constantly  cold  environment. 

To  live  constantly  warm,  protected  either  by  clothes  or  by  arti- 
ficial heat,  so  that  the  organism  remains  always  at  a  constant 
temperature,  is  not  favourable  to  growth,  because  it  deprives  the 
organism  of  the  physiological  exercise  of  adapting  itself  to  varia- 
tions in  external  temperature,  an  exercise  which  stimulates  useful 
functions.  By  perspiring  in  summer,  we  cleanse  our  system  of 
poisonous  secretions,  and  by  shivering  in  winter  we  give  tone  to  our 
striped  muscles  and  to  our  internal  organs,  as  is  proved  by  our  gain 
in  appetite.  Anyone  who  wishes  to  be  kept  on  ice  in  summer  and 
to  transform  his  apartment  into  a  hot-house  in  winter,  robs  him- 
self of  these  advantages  and  enfeebles  his  system. 

The  apparent  comfort  is  not  in  this  case  a  real  physiological 
enjoyment  but  a  weakness  of  habit  that  is  accompanied  by  a  loss 
of  physiological  energy.  What  makes  us  robust  is  a  rational 
exercise  of  all  our  energies.  Thermal  gymnastics  is  consequently 
useful.  It  consists  in  exposing  a  healthy,  resistant  organism  to 
changes  in  temperature,  trusting  to  our  physiological  resources 
for  the  means  of  defense.  Thus,  for  example,  a  child  who  is  well 
fed  and  well  protected  from  the  cold  for  many  hours  of  the  day  in 
the  well-heated  family  apartment,  can  go  out  with  bare  legs  into 
the  snow;  and  doing  so  will  make  him  more  robust.  In  the  same 
way,  the  ancient  Romans  exposed  themselves  in  their  hot  baths 
to  the  steadily  increasing  temperature  of  the  calidarium,  up  to 


134  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  point  of  60  degrees  (140  Fahrenheit),  and  then  still  perspiring 
flung  themselves  into  a  cold  plunge.  And  it  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
afterward  they  held  lavish  banquets  in  these  same  baths. .  Such 
exercise  which  in  classic  times  gave  vigour  to  the  race  that  made 
itself  master  of  the  world  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  "  Thermic 
gymnastics"  of  organisms  "well  nourished  and  strong." 

Our  own  boatmen  also  throw  themselves  into  the  river  in  mid- 
winter, half  nude,  and  half  nude  they  ply  their  long  poles.  They 
expose  themselves  to  the  cold,  in  the  same  way  that  they  might 
raise  a  weight  of  many  pounds  with  their  robust  arms,  for  gymnas- 
tic exercise. 

But  all  this  differs  radically  from  living  continually  in  a  cold 
temperature.  It  is  a  very  different  thing  from  the  life  of  a  child 
of  the  lower  classes,  who  goes  bare-foot  in  winter,  clad  in  a  few 
scant  rags,  half  frozen  in  his  wretched  tenement,  and  unable  to 
obtain  sufficient  nourishment  to  develop  the  needed  heat-units. 
He  is  already  deficient  in  bodily  heat  because  of  malnutrition,  and 
the  effects  of  cold  are  cumulative.  In  this  case  it  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  thermic  exercise  but  of  a  permanent  deprivation  of  heat,  in  indi- 
viduals who  are  already  suffering  from  an  insufficient  development 
of  heatrunits.  Consequently  the  organism  is  enfeebled — it  grows 
under  unfavorable  conditions — and  the  result  is  a  permanent 
diminution  of  development.  Whoever  grows  up,  exposed  to  cold 
after  this  fashion,  has,  in  the  average  case,  a  lower  stature  than 
those  who  grow  up  in  the  midst  of  warmth,  or  in  the  practice  of 
that  healthful  exercise  which  constitutes  the  ideal:  thermic 
gymnastics. 

The  contradictory  ideas  that  are  held  as  to  the  efficacy  of  heat 
in  regard  to  growth,  are  due  to  a  large  extent  to  a  prejudice  which 
amounts  to  this:  heat  is  effective  in  promoting  the  evolution  of 
life  as  a  whole,  and  consequently  the  development  of  that  part 
of  life  that  is  centred  in  the  organs  of  reproduction;  from  which 
comes  the  well-nigh  antiquated  theory  that  artificial  heat  should 
be  banished  from  the  schools,  as  one  of  the  factors  leading  to 
immorality!  It  is  true  that  warmth  accelerates  the  development 
of  puberty;  but  who  is  there  in  this  twentieth  century  who  can 
still  conceive  the  idea  that  it  is  a  moral  act  to  silence  the  forces  of 
nature?  Good  nourishment  also  leads  to  a  more  precocious 
puberty;  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  repeated  psychic  stimulus 
produced  by  various  forms  of  intellectual  enjoyment,  by  conver- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     135 

sation,  and  by  social  intercourse  with  individuals  of  the  opposite 
sex.  Accordingly,  if  it  were  a  moral  act  to  retard  the  development 
of  puberty  and  to  produce  a  general  impoverishment  of  sexual 
life,  the  moral  measures  to  be  taken  in  education  would  be  cold, 
malnutrition,  and  the  isolation  of  the  sexes  in  the  schools,  which,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  form  the  stumbling-block  of  environment  in  our 
colleges.  But  it  is  well  known  that  all  this  leads  on  the  contrary 
to  moral  and  physical  degeneration!  As  has  already  been  said, 
the  normal  physiological  development  stands  in  counterdistinc- 
tion  to  immoral  habits;  consequently,  whatever  is  an  aid  to 
physiological  development  is  in  its  very  nature  moral. 

In  warm  climates  the  first  manifestations  of  puberty  occur 
precociously  in  man  as  well  as  in  woman;  and  with  them  come  all 
the  transformations  that  are  associated  with  puberty,  among 
others  the  rapid  increase  of  stature.  In  cold  climates,  on  the 
contrary,  such  manifestations  are  more  tardy.  The  women  of 
Lapland  are  latest  of  all  to  develop.  With  them,  menstruation 
begins  only  at  eighteen,  and  they  are  incapable  of  conceiving 
under  the  age  of  twenty,  while  the  period  of  the  menopause  (in- 
volution of  sexual  life)  is  correspondingly  early;  in  other  words, 
the  entire  period  of  sexual  life  is  shortened.  Furthermore,  the 
fertility  of  the  women  of  Lapland  is  low;  they  cannot  conceive 
more  than  three  children.  But  if  these  same  women  leave  Lap- 
land and  make  their  home  in  civilised  countries,  as  for  example 
in  Sweden,  they  have  a  more  precocious  sexual  life,  as  well  as 
longer  and  more  fertile,  and  altogether  quite  similar  to  that  of  the 
Swedish  women.* 

Cabanist  notes  that  even  in  cold  climates,  when  young  girls 
spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  vicinity  of  stoves,  menstruation 
begins  at  about  the  same  age  as  in  women  who  live  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges — as  is  the  case  with  the  daughters  of  wealthy 
Russians,  whose  development  is  quite  precocious.  In  Arabia, 
in  Egypt,  and  in  Abyssinia  the  women  are  frequently  mothers  at 
the  age  of  ten,  menstruation  having  begun  at  the  eighth  year. 
It  is  even  said  that  Mahomed  married  Radeejah  when  she  was  only 
five  and  that  he  took  her  to  his  bed  at  the  age  of  eight.  The 
religious  laws  of  India  permit  the  marriage  of  girls  when  they  are 
eight  years  old. 

*  RACIBORSKI,  cited  by  MARRO,  Puberty. 
t  Idem. 


136  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Consequently  it  is  true  that  heat  has  an  influence  upon  the 
development  of  the  organism  independently  of  other  influences; 
in  fact,  heat  acts  both  in  the  form  of  climate,  that  is,  in  a  natural 
state,  and  also  in  an  artificially  warmed  environment.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  causes  of  the  different  degrees  of  growth  in  stature 
through  the  successive  seasons  (see  below). 

In  conclusion:  it  is  enjoined  upon  us,  as  a  hygienic  necessity, 
to  heat  the  schools  in  winter,  especially  the  schools  for  the  poorer 
classes;  it  means  more  than  increased  vigour,  it  may  even  mean 
giving  life  to  some  who  otherwise  would  pine  away  from  depriva- 
tion of  heat-units,  a  condition  most  unfavourable  to  organisms  in 
the  course  of  evolution. 

Photogenic  Conditions. — Light  also  has  a  perceptible  influence 
upon  growth :  it  is  a  great  physiological  stimulant.  At  the  present 
day,  physical  therapy  employs  light  baths  for  certain  forms  of 
neurasthenia  and  partial  enf eeblement  of  certain  organs ;  and  some 
biological  manifestations,  such  as  the  pigments — and  similarly 
the  chlorophyl  in  plants  and  the  variegated  colouring  of  birds — 
receive  a  creative  stimulus  from  light. 

Light  contains  in  its  spectrum  many  different  colours,  which 
act  quite  differently  upon  living  tissues;  the  ultra-violet  rays,  for 
instance,  kill  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  and  sometimes  effect  cures 
in  cases  of  cancer.  Psychiatrists  and  neuropaths  have  demon- 
strated that  many  colours  of  light  have  an  exciting  effect,  while 
others,  on  the  contrary,  are  sedative. 

Hence  there  has  arisen  in  medicine  a  vast  and  most  interesting 
chapter  of  phototherapy. 

In  regard  to  the  phenomena  of  growth,  it  has  been  noted  that 
certain  coloured  lights  are  favourable  to  it,  while  certain  others, 
on  the  contrary,  diminish  or  arrest  it,  as  the  red  and  the  green. 

Phototherapy  ought  to  concern  us  as  educators,  especially 
in  regard  to  schools  for  the  benefit  of  nervous  children:  a  periodic 
sojourn  in  a  room  lit  by  calming  colours  might  have  a  beneficent 
effect  upon  epileptic,  irritable,  nervous  children,  in  place  of  the 
debilitating  hot  bath,  or,  worse  yet,  the  administration  of  bro- 
mides ;  while  light-baths  would  be  efficacious  for  weak  and  torpid 
children. 

But  for  normal  children  we  must  consider  the  light  of  the  sun 
as  the  best  stimulant  for  their  growth.  A  sojourn  at  the  sea-shore, 
so  favourable  to  the  development  of  children,  is  now  believed  to  owe 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     137 

its  beneficial  effects  to  the  fact  that  the  child,  playing  half  naked 
on  the  sea-shore,  bathes  more  in  the  sunlight  than  he  does  in  the 
salt  water.  Gymnastics  in  the  sun,  while  the  body  is  still  only 
half  dry,  is  what  the  younger  generations  should  practise  on  a 
large  scale,  if  they  would  bring  about  the  triumph  of  physiological 
life.  . 

We  must  not  forget  this  great  principle  when,  by  planning 
home  work  for  the  pupils,  we  practically  keep  them  housed  during 
the  entire  day,  keeping  them  for  the  most  part  employed  in  writ- 
ing or  reading;  in  other  words,  using  their  sense  of  sight,  which, 
if  it  is  to  be  preserved  unharmed,  demands  a  moderate  light.  The 
eye  ought  to  rest  its  muscles  of  accommodation,  and  the  whole 
body  be  exposed  to  the  full  light  of  the  sun  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  day.  Let  us  remember  that  often  the  children  of  the  poor 
live  in  a  home  so  dark  that  even  in  full  mid-day  they  are  obliged 
to  light  a  lamp!  Let  us  at  least  leave  them  the  light  of  the 
street,  as  a  recompense  for  wretchedness  that  is  a  disgrace  to 
civilisation ! 

According  to  certain  experiments  conducted  in  Rome  by 
Professor  Gosio,  the  light  of  the  sun  has  an  intensive  effect  upon- 
life.  Living  creatures  reared  in  the  solar  light  grow  and  mature 
earlier,  but  at  the  same  time  their  life  is  shortened;  that  is,  the 
cycle  of  life  is  more  intense  and  more  precocious;  conversely,  in 
the  shade  the  cycle  of  life  is  slower,  but  of  longer  duration.  A 
plant  matures  more  quickly  in  the  sun,  but  its  stature  is  lower 
than  that  of  a  plant  in  the  dark,  which  has  grown  far 
more  slowly,  but  has  become  very  tall  and  slender  and  lacking  in 
chlorophyl.  Similarly,  as  is  well  known,  the  women  in  tropical 
countries  attain  a  precocious  puberty,  while  conversely  those  of 
the  North  attain  it  tardily;  and  this  fact  must  be  considered  in 
relation  to  the  influence  of  the  sun.  A  life  passed  wholly  in  the 
sunlight  would  be  too  intense;  an  organism  that  is  exposed  a  few 
hours  each  day  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  is  invigourated;  the  inter- 
change of  matter  (metabolism)  is  augmented;  all  the  tissues  are 
beneficially  stimulated.  For  this  reason  sun  baths  are  employed  for 
paralytic  and  idiot  children,  and  consist  in  exposing  the  body  of 
the  child,  reclining  upon  its  bed  and  with  its  head  well  protected, 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  several  hours  a  day;  this  treatment 
is  found  to  be  most  efficacious  in  giving  tone  to  the  tissues  and 
improving  the  general  condition  of  the  system. 


138 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Variations  in  the  Growth  of  Stature  According  to  the  Seasons. — 
One  proof  of  the  beneficent  influence  of  heat  and  sunlight  upon 
the  growth  of  the  organism,  is  afforded  by  the  variations  in  the 
rate  of  growth  according  to  the  seasons.  Every  individual  grows 
more  in  summer  than  in  winter.  Daffner  gives  the  following 
figures  relative  to  the  increase  in  stature  according  to  the  seasons : 


Stature 

Increase 

Number  of 

Age  in 

in  centimetres 

in  centimetres 

subjects 

years 

October 

April 

October 

Winter 

Summer 

Entire 

year 

12 

11-12 

139.4 

141.0 

143.3 

1.6 

2.3 

3.9 

80 

12-13 

143.0 

144.5 

147.4 

1.5 

2.9 

4.4 

146 

13-14 

147.5 

149.5 

152.5 

2.0 

3.0 

5.0 

162 

14-15 

152.5 

155.0 

158.5 

2.5 

3.5 

6.0 

162 

15-16 

158.5 

160.8 

163.8 

2.3 

3.0 

5.3 

150 

16-17 

163.5 

165.4 

167.7 

1.9 

2.3 

4.2 

82 

17-18 

167.7 

168.9 

170.4 

1.2 

1.5 

2.7 

22 

18-19 

169.8 

170.6 

171.5 

0.8 

0.9 

1.7 

6 

19-20 

170.7 

171.1 

171.5 

0.4 

0.4 

0.8 

In  the  "Children's  Houses,"  I  require  a  record  of  stature  to  be 
made  month  by  month  in  the  case  of  every  child,  the  measurement 
being  taken  on  the  day  corresponding  to  the  day  on  which  he  was 
born  in  the  month  of  his  birth;  in  addition  to  which  I  keep  a 
record  of  the  total  annual  increase. 

The  ages  of  these  children  vary  between  three  and  four  years, 
and  they  all  belong  to  the  poorer  social  classes. 

MONTHLY  AVERAGE  INCREASE  IN  STATURE 

IN  THE  "CHILDREN'S  HOUSES" 

(In  millimetres) 


Cold  months 


Warm  months 


December 

January 

February 

May 

June 

July 

4 

3 

4 

7 

8 

8 

Another  factor  of  growth  is 

Electricity. — One  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  of  recent 
date  is  that  of  the  influence  of  terrestrial  electricity  upon  the 
growth  of  living  organisms. 

A  series  of  experiments  were  made,  by  isolating  cavies  (a 
species  of  small  Indian  pig)  from  terrestrial  electricity,  and 
as  a  result  they  were  found  to  be  retarded  in  growth  and  to 
develop  very  imperfectly,  much  as  though  they  had  been  suffer- 
ing from  rickets.  In  short,  they  manifested  an  arrest  of  organic 
development. 

If,  in  electro-therapy,  an  electric  current  is  applied  to  the 
cartilages  of  the  long  bones  in  children  whose  limbs  have  ap- 
parently been  arrested  in  development,  the  result  is  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  length,  amounting  to  a  luxuriant  osteogenesis. 

Since  we  know  that  the  electric  current  can  stimulate  the 
nerve  filaments  and  the  fibres  of  the  striped  muscles  when  they 
have  been  rendered  inactive  from  the  effects  of  paresis  or  even  of 
paralysis,  we  realise  that  electricity  can  exert  an  influence  over  the 
entire  physiological  life  of  an  organism.  We  live  not  only  upon 
nutriment,  air,  heat,  and  light,  but  also  upon  a  mysterious,  imper- 
ceptible force,  that  comes  to  us  from  the  mother  earth. 

In  addition  to  the  biological  potentialities  which  control  the 
development  of  every  individual,  all  living  creatures  owe  some- 
thing of  themselves  to  their  environment. 

Space. — An  empirical  contention,  without  scientific  value, 
but  nevertheless  of  some  interest,  is  that  there  is  an  ultimate 
relationship  between  the  dimensions  of  living  bodies  and  the 
territorial  space,  that  is,  the  environment  in  which  they  are  destined 
to  live.  In  view  of  the  innumerable  varieties  of  living  creatures, 
such  an  assertion  would  seem  to  be  utterly  unfounded.  But 
as  a  matter  of  fact  we  see  that  while  inorganic  bodies  can  increase 
indefinitely  in  dimension,  living  creatures  are  limited  in  form  and 
size.  This  fact  undoubtedly  has  some  primal  connection  with 
properties  innate  in  corporeal  life  itself;  in  fact,  in  order  to  attain 
its  appointed  end,  life  requires  the  services  of  certain  very  small 
microscopic  particles  called  cells.  But  the  aggregations  and 
combinations  of  cells  in  living  organisms  are  also  limited  in  their 
turn,  and  no  matter  how  willingly  we  would  attribute  the  greatest 
share  of  causation  to  biological  facts,  nevertheless,  as  always 
happens  in  life,  we  cannot  wholly  exclude  environment. 


140  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Both  animals  and  men  that  are  bred  on  vast  continents  (Chi- 
nese, Russians)  have  tended  to  produce  races  of  powerful  and 
giant  build:  in  islands,  on  the  contrary,  the  men  and  the  animals 
are  of  small  size;  it  is  sufficient  merely  to  cite  the  men  and  the 
little  donkeys  of  Sardinia,  the  small  Irishmen  who  furnish  jockeys 
for  the  race-track,  and  the  small  Irish  horses  or  ponies  that  serve 
as  saddle-horses  for  the  children  of  the  aristocracy  the  world  over. 

There  is  a  harmony  of  associations,  as  between  the  container  and 
the  contained,  between  environment  and  life,  notwithstanding  that 
as  yet  science  has  not  made  serious  investigations  in  regard  to  it. 

Voltaire,  in  his  Micromega,  avails  himself  of  this  intuitive  con- 
ception to  create  the  material  needed  for  his  satire;  he  talks  amus- 
ingly of  the  inhabitant  of  the  planet  Sirius,  who  was  eight  leagues 
in  height  and  at  four  hundred  years  of  age  was  still  in  school, 
while  the  inhabitant  of  Saturn  was  a  mere  pigmy  in  comparison, 
being  scarcely  a  thousand  rods  tall — in  fact,  the  inhabitants  of 
Saturn  could  not  be  otherwise  than  pigmies  in  comparison,  since 
Saturn  is  barely  nine  hundred  times  larger  than  the  earth. 

Gulliver  makes  use  of  similar  standards  in  his  Travels,  which 
are  read  with  so  much  delight  by  children. 

Psychic  Conditions. — Psychic  Stimuli. — Accordingly  many 
chemical  and  physical  factors  associated  with  the  environment 
concur  in  aiding  life  in  its  development.  From  the  light  of  the 
sun  to  the  electricity  of  the  earth,  the  whole  environment  offers 
its  tribute  to  life,  in  order  to  cooperate  in  life's  triumph.  But,  in 
the  case  of  man,  in  addition  to  these  widely  different  factors,  there 
is  still  another  distinctly  human  factor  that  we  must  take  into 
consideration  and  that  we  may  call  the  psychic  stimulus  of  life: 
We  may  scientifically  affirm  the  Bible  statement  that  "man  does 
not  live  by  bread  alone." 

Without  reverting  to  the  basic  physiological  explanations  of 
the  emotions,  as  given  by  Lange  and  James,  we  may  nevertheless 
assert  that  sensations  of  pleasure  stimulate  the  renewal  of  bodily 
tissues  and  consequently  promote  health,  happiness,  and  strength ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  painful  events  produce  physiological  effects 
depressing  to  the  tone  of  the  nervous  system  and  to  the  metabolic 
activity  of  the  tissues. 

But  it  is  precisely  these  metabolic  phenomena  that  hold  the 
key  of  life,  and  an  organism  in  the  course  of  evolution  depends 
directly  upon  them.  This  problem  concerns  pedagogy  in  a  very 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     141 

special  way :  when  we  have  given  food  to  the  children  in  our  schools, 
we  have  not  yet  completed  our  task  of  nourishing  these  children; 
for  the  phenomena  of  nutrition  which  take  place  in  the  hidden 
recesses  of  their  tissues  are  very  different  from  a  simple  intestinal 
transformation  of  aliments,  and  are  influenced  by  the  psychic 
conditions  of  the  individual  pupil. 

Great  workers  not  only  need  abundant  nutriment,  but  they 
require  at  the  same  time  a  series  of  stimuli  designed  to  produce 
11  pleasure."  The  pleasures  of  life,  necessary  to  human  existence, 
include  more  than  bread.  In  the  history  of  social  evolution  there 
exist,  side  by  side  with  the  productions  of  labour,  an  entire  series  of 
enjoyments,  more  or  less  elevated,  that  constitute  the  stimului  to 
production,  and  hence  to  evolution,  and  more  profoundly  still,  to 
life  itself. 

The  further  man  evolves  and  the  more  he  produces,  the  more 
he  ought  to  multiply  and  perfect  his  means  of  enjoyment. 

Without  stimuli,  nutrition  would  grow  less  and  less  till  it  ended 
in  death.  E very-day  experience  in  the  punishment  of  criminals 
gives  us  proof  of  this.  Confinement  to  a  solitary  cell  is  nothing 
else  than  a  complete  deprivation  of  psychic  stimuli.  The  prisoner 
does  not  lack  bread,  nor  air,  nor  shelter  from  the  elements,  nor 
sleep;  his  whole  physiological  life  is  provided  for,  in  the  strict 
material  sense  of  the  word.  But  the  bare  walls,  the  silence,  the 
isolation  from  his  fellow  men  in  utter  solitude,  deprive  the  prisoner 
of  every  stimulus,  visual,  oral  and  moral. 

The  consequences  are  not  merely  a  state  of  hopelessness,  but 
a  real  and  actual  malnutrition  leading  to  tuberculosis,  to  anemia, 
to  death  from  atrophy.  We  may  affirm  that  such  a  prisoner  dies 
slowly  of  hunger  due  to  defective  assimilation;  the  solitary  cell  is  the 
modern  donjon,  and  far  more  cruel  than  the  one  in  which  Ugolino 
died  within  a  few  days,  so  much  so  that  solitary  confinement, 
being  incompatible  with  life,  is  only  of  short  duration. 

Labour,  love,  and  sensations  apt  to  stimulate  ideas,  that  is,  to 
nourish  the  intelligence,  are  necessities  of  human  life. 

This  is  further  proved  by  observations  made  regarding  the 
development  of  puberty.  Psychic  stimuli  may  render  such  de- 
velopment precocious,  and,  on  the  contrary,  their  absence  may 
retard  it.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  relates  in  Emile  that  at  Friuli 
he  encountered  young  people  of  both  sexes  who  were  still  unde- 
veloped, although  they  were  past  the  usual  age  and  were  strong 
10 


142  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

and  robust,  and  this  he  attributed  to  the  fact  that  "  owing  to  the 
simplicity  of  their  customs,  their  imagination  remained  calm  and 
tranquil  for  a  longer  time,  causing  the  ferment  in  their  blood  to 
occur  later,  and  consequently  rendering  their  temperament  less 
precocious."* 

Recent  statistical  research  confirms  the  intuitive  observation 
of  that  great  pedagogist;  the  women  in  the  environs  of  Paris 
attain  puberty  nearly  a  year  later  than  those  who  live  in  the  city; 
and  the  same  difference  is  observed  between  the  country  districts 
around  Turin  and  those  of  the  city  itself. 

All  this  goes  to  prove  the  fact  of  psychic  influence  upon 
physiological  life:  psychic  excitation,  experienced  with  pleasure, 
by  developing  healthy  activities,  aids  the  development  of  physical 
life.f 

These  principles  must  be  taken  under  deep  consideration  when 
it  comes  to  a  question  of  directing  the  physiological  growth  of  chil- 
dren. Fenelon  relates  a  fable  about  a  female  bear  who,  having 
brought  into  the  world  an  exceedingly  ugly  son,  took  the  advice 
of  a  crow  and  licked  and  smoothed  her  cub  so  constantly  that  he 
finally  became  attractive  and  good-looking.  This  fable  embodies 
the  idea  that  maternal  love  may  modify  the  body  of  the  child,  aiding 
its  evolution  toward  a  harmony  of  form  by  means  of  the  first 
psychic  stimuli  of  caresses  and  counsel. 

Nature  has  implanted  in  the  mother  not  only  her  milk,  the 
material  nourishment  of  her  child,  but  also  that  absolutely  al- 
truistic love  which  transforms  the  soul  of  a  woman,  and  creates  in 
it  moral  forces  hitherto  unknown  and  unsuspected  by  the  woman 
herself — just  as  the  sweet  and  nourishing  corpuscles  of  the  milk 
were  unknown  to  the  red  corpuscles  of  her  blood.  Accordingly, 
the  nature  of  the  human  kind  protects  the  species  through  the 
mother  in  two  ways,  which  together  form  the  complete  nutrition 
of  man:  aliment  and  love.  After  a  child  is  weaned,  it  obtains  its 
aliment  from  its  environment  in  more  varied  forms;  and  it  also 
obtains  from  its  environment  a  great  variety  of  psychic  stimuli, 
calculated  not  only  to  mould  its  psychic  personality,  but  also  to 
bring  its  physiological  personality  to  its  full  development. 

*  ROUSSEAU,  Entile,  cited  by  MARRO. 

f  It  should  be  noted  that  sexual  precocity  or  vice  retards  the  development  of  puberty, 
while  healthful  psychic  stimuli  are  favourable  to  it.  Hence  it  was  a  right  instinct  that  led 
us  to  give  the  name  of  sin  and  vice  to  what  retards  the  normal  development  of  life,  and 
virtue  and  honour  to  what  is  favourable  to  it. — Author's  note. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     143 

I  have  had  most  eloquent  experience  of  this  in  the  "Children's  Houses"  in 
the  San  Lorenzo  quarter  of  Rome.  This  is  the  poorest  quarter  in  the  city,  and 
the  children  are  the  sons  and  daughters  of  day  labourers,  who  consequently  are 
often  out  of  work;  illiteracy  is  even  yet  incredibly  frequent  among  the  adults, 
so  much  so  that  in  a  very  high  percentage  of  cases  at  least  one  of  the  parents  is 
unable  to  read.  In  these  "  Children's  Houses"  we  receive  little  children  between 
the  ages  of  three  and  seven,  on  a  time  schedule  that  varies  between  summer,  from 
nine  to  five,  and  winter,  from  nine  to  four. 

We  have  never  served  food  in  the  school;  the  little  ones,  all  of  whom  live  in 
their  own  homes,  with  their  parents,  have  a  half  hour's  recess  in  which  to  go  home 
to  luncheon.  Consequently  we  have  not  in  any  way  influenced  their  diet. 

The  pedagogic  methods  employed,  however,  are  of  such  sort  as  to  constitute 
a  gradual  series  of  psychic  stimuli  perfectly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  childhood; 
the  environment  stimulates  each  pupil  individually  to  his  rightful  psychic 
development  according  to  his  subjective  potentiality.  The  children  are  free  in  all 
their  manifestations  and  are  treated  with  much  cordial  affection.  I  believe  that 
this  is  the  first  time  that  this  extremely  interesting  pedagogic  experiment  has  ever 
been  made:  namely,  to  sow  the  seed  in  the  consciousness  of  the  child,  leaving  free 
opportunity,  in  the  most  rigourous  sense,  for  the  spontaneous  expansion  of 
its  personality,  in  ari  environment  that  is  calm,  and  warm  with  a  sentiment  of 
affection  and  peace. 

The  results  achieved  were  surprising:  we  were  obliged  to  remodel  our  ideas 
regarding  child  psychology,  because  many  of  the  so-called  instincts  of  childhood 
did  not  develop  at  all,  while  in  place  of  them  unforeseen  sentiments  and  intellectual 
passions  made  their  appearance  in  the  primordial  consciousness  of  these  children; 
true  revelations  of  the  sublime  greatness  of  the  human  soul!  The  intellectual 
activity  of  these  little  children  was  like  a  spring  of  water  gushing  from  beneath 
the  rocks  that  had  been  erroneously  piled  upon  their  budding  souls ;  we  saw  them 
accomplishing  the  incredible  feat  of  despising  playthings,  through  their  insatiable 
thirst  for  knowledge;  carefully  preserving  the  most  fragile  objects  of  the  lesson, 
the  tenderest  plants  sprouting  from  the  earth — these  children  that  are  reputed 
to  be  vandals  by  instinct!  In  short,  they  seemed  to  us  to  represent  the  childhood 
of  a  human  race  more  highly  evolved  than  our  own;  and  yet  they  are  really  the 
same  humanity,  marvelously  guided  and  stimulated  through  its  own  natural  and 
free  development! 

But  what  is  still  more  marvelous  is  the  astonishing  fact  that  all  these  children 
are  so  much  improved  in  their  general  nutrition  as  to  present  a  notably  different 
appearance  from  their  former  state,  and  from  the  condition  in  which  their  brothers 
still  remain.  Many  weakly  ones  have  been  organically  strengthened;  a  great 
many  who  were  lymphatic  have  been  cured;  and  in  general  the  children  have 
gained  flesh  and  become  ruddy  to  such  an  extent  that  they  look  like  the  children 
of  wealthy  parents  living  in  the  country.  No  one  seeing  them  would  believe  that 
these  were  the  offspring  of  the  illiterate  lower  classes! 

Well,  let  us  glance  over  the  notes  taken  upon  these  children  at  the  time  when 
they  first  entered  the  school;  for  the  great  majority,  the  same  note  was  made: 
need  of  tonics.  Yet  not  one  of  them  took  medicine,  not  one  of  them  had  a  change 
of  diet;  the  renewed  vigour  of  these  children  was  due  solely  to  the  complete  satisfac~ 


144  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tion  of  their  psychic  life.  And  yet  they  remain  in  school  continually  from  nine 
till  five  through  eleven  months  out  of  the  year!  One  would  say  that  this  was  an 
excessively  long  schedule;  yet  what  is  still  more  surprising  is  that  during  all  this 
period  the  children  are  continually  busy;  and  even  more  remarkable  is  the  report 
made  by  many  of  the  mothers  to  the  effect  that  after  their  little  ones  have 
returned  home  they  continue  to  busy  themselves  up  to  the  hour  of  going  to  bed; 
and  lastly — and  this  seems  almost  incredible — many  of  the  little  ones  are  back 
again  at  school  by  half  past  eight  in  the  morning,  tranquil,  smiling,  as  though 
blissfully  anticipating  the  enjoyment  that  awaits  them  during  the  long  day! 
We  have  seen  small  boys  become  profoundly  observant  of  their  environment, 
finding  a  spontanequs  delight  in  new  sensations.  Their  stature,  which  we 
measure  month  by  month,  shows  how  vigourous  the  physiological  growth  is  in 
every  one  of  them,  but  particularly  in  certain  ones,  whose  blood-supply  has 
become  excellent. 

Such  results  of  our  experiments  have  amazed  us  as  an  unexpected  revelation 
of  nature,  or,  to  phrase  it  differently,  as  a  scientific  discovery.  Yet  we  might  have 
foreseen  some  part  of  all  this  had  we  stopped  to  think  how  our  own  physical 
health  depends  far  more  upon  happiness  and  a  peaceful  conscience  than  upon 
that  material  substance,  bread! 

Let  us  learn  to  know  man,  eublime  in  his  true  reality!  let  Us  learn  to  know  him 
in  the  tenderest  little  child;  we  have  shown  by  experiment  that  he  develops 
through  work,  through  liberty,  and  through  love;  hitherto,  in  place  of  these,  we  have 
stifled  the  splendid  possibilities  of  his  nature  with  irrational  toys,  with  the  slavery 
of  discipline,  with  contempt  for  his  spontaneous  manifestations.  Man  lives  for 
the  purpose  of  learning,  loving  and  producing,  from  his  earliest  years  upward; 
it  is  from  this  that  even  his  bones  get  their  growth  and  from  this  that  his  blood 
draws  its  vitality! 

Now,  all  such  factors  of  physiological  development  are  suffocated  by  our 
antiquated  pedagogic  methods.  We  prevent,  more  or  less  completely,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  separate  personalities,  in  order  to  keep  all  the  pupils  within  the 
selfsame  limits.  The  perfectionment  of  each  is  impeded  by  the  common  level 
which  it  is  expected  that  all  shall  attain  and  make  their  limit,  while  the  pupils 
are  forced  to  receive  from  us,  instead  of  producing  of  their  own  accord;  and  they 
are  obliged  to  sit  motionless  with  their  minds  in  bondage  to  an  iron  programme, 
as  their  bodies  are  to  the  iron  benches. 

We  wish  to  look  upon  them  as  machines,  to  be  driven  and  guided  by  us,  when 
in  reality  they  are  the  most  sensitive  and  the  most  superb  creation  of  nature. 

We  destroy  divine  forces  by  slavery.  Rewards  and  punishments  furnish  us 
with  the  needed  scourge  to  enforce  submission  from  these  marvelously  active 
minds;  we  encourage  them  with  rewards!  to  what  end?  to  winning  the  prize! 
Well,  by  doing  so  we  make  the  child  lose  sight  of  his  real  goal,  which  is  knowledge, 
liberty  and  work,  in  order  to  dazzle  him  with  a  prize  which,  considered  morally, 
is  vanity,  and  considered  materially  is  a  few  grains  of  metal.  We  inflict  punish- 
ments in  order  to  conquer  nature,  which  is  in  rebellion,  not  against  what  is  good 
and  beautiful,  not  against  the  purpose  of  life,  but  against  us,  because  we  are 
tyrants  instead  of  guides. 

If  only  we  did  not  also  punish  sickness,  misfortune  and  poverty! 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     145 

We  are  breakers-in  of  free  human  beings,  not  educators  of  men. 

Our  faith  in  rewards  and  punishments  as  a  necessary  means  to  the  progress  of 
the  children  and  to  the  maintainence  of  discipline,  is  a  fallacy  already  exploded 
by  experiment.  It  is  not  the  material  and  vain  reward,  bestowed  upon  a  few 
individual  children,  that  constitutes  the  psychic  stimulus  which  spurs  on  the 
multifold  expansions  of  human  life  to  greater  heights;  rewards  degrade  the  gran- 
deur of  human  consciousness  into  vanity  and  confine  it  within  the  limits  of  egotism, 
which  means  perdition.  The  stimulus  worthy  of  man  is  the  joy  which  he  feels 
in  the  consciousness  of  his  own  growth;  and  he  grows  only  through  the  conquest 
of  his  own  spirit  and  the  spread  of  universal  brotherhood.  It  is  not  true  that  the 
child  is  incapable  of  feeling  a  spiritual  stimulus  far  greater  than  the  wretched 
prize  that  gives  him  an  egotistical  and  illusory  superiority  over  his  companions; 
it  is  rather  that  we  ourselves,  because  already  degraded  by  egotism,  judge  these 
new  forces  of  nascent  human  life  after  our  own  low  standards. 

The  small  boys  and  girls  in  our  "Children's  Houses"  are  of  their  own  accord 
distrustful  of  rewards ;  they  despise  the  little  medals,  intended  to  be  pinned  upon 
the  breast  as  marks  of  distinction,  and  instead  they  actively  search  for  objects 
of  study  through  which,  without  any  guidance  from  the  teacher,  they  may  model 
and  judge  and  correct  themselves,  and  thus  work  toward  perfection. 

As  to  punishments,  they  are  depressing  in  effect,  and  they  are  inflicted  upon 
children  who  are  already  depressed! 

Even  in  the  case  of  those  who  are  adult  and  strong,  we  know  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  encourage  those  who  have  fallen,  to  aid  the  weak,  to  comfort  those  who 
are  discouraged.  And  if  this  method  serves  for  the  strong,  how  much  more 
necessary  it  is  for  lives  in  the  course  of  evolution! 

This  is  a  great  reform  which  the  world  awaits  at  our  hands:  we  must  shatter 
the  iron  chains  with  which  we  have  kept  the  intelligence  of  the  new  generations 
in  bondage!* 

Pathological  Variations.— Among  the  factors  that  may  have  a 
notable  influence  upon  the  stature  are  the  pathological  causes. 
Aside  from  those  very  rare  occurrences  that  produce  gigantism, 
it  may  be  affirmed  that  pathological  variations  result  in  general 
in  an  arrest  of  development.  In  such  a  case  it  may  follow  that 
an  individual  of  a  given  age  will  show  the  various  characteristics 
of  an  individual  of  a  younger  age;  that  is,  he  will  seem  younger 
or  more  childish. 

In  such  a  case  the  stature  has  remained  on  a  lower  level  than 
that  which  is  normal  for  the  given  age;  and  this  in  general  is  the 
most  obvious  characteristic,  because  it  is  the  index  of  the  whole 
inclusive  arrest  of  the  physical  personality.  But  together  with 
the  diminution  of  stature,  various  other  characteristics  may  exist 

*  Compare  The  method  of  Scientific  Pedagogy  applied  to  infantile  education  in  the  "  Chil- 
dren's Houses,"  MONTESSORI:  Casa  Editr.  Lapi,  1909. 


146  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

that  also  suggest  a  younger  age;  that  is,  the  entire  personality 
has  been  arrested  in  its  development. 

It  follows,  in  school  for  example,  that  such  pathological  cases 
may  escape  the  master's  attention;  he  sees  among  his  scholars 
a  type  that  is  apparently  not  abnormal,  because  it  does  not  deviate 
from  the  common  type,  in  fact  is  quite  like  other  children;  but 
when  we  inquire  into  its  age,  then  the  anomaly  becomes  evident, 
because  the  actual  age  of  this  small  child  is  greater  than  his  appar- 
ent age. 

A  principle  of  this  sort  announced  in  these  terms  is  perhaps 
too  schematic;  but  it  will  serve  to  establish  a  clear  general  rule 
that  will  guide  us  in  our  separate  observations  of  a  great  variety 
of  individual  cases. 

This  form  of  arrested  development  was  for  the  first  time 
explained  by  Lasegue,  who  introduced  into  the  literature  of 
medicine  or  rather  into  nosographism,  the  comparative  term  of 
infantilism. 

Infantilism  has  been  extensively  studied  in  Italy  by  Professor 
Sante  de  Sanctis,  who  has  written  notable  treatises  upon  it.  I 
have  taken  from  his  work  Gli  Infantilismi,  the  following  table  of 
fundamental  characteristics  necessary  to  constitute  the  infantile 
type. 

1.  Stature  and  physical  development  in  general  below  that 
required  by  the  age  of  the  patient. 

2.  Retarded  development  or  incomplete  development  of  the 
sexual  organs  and  of  their  functions. 

3.  Incomplete  development  of  intelligence  and  character. 

In  order  to  recognise  infantilism,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
dimensions  and  morphology  of  the  body  in  their  relation  to  the 
various  ages,  and  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  young  children  sexual 
development  either  has  not  begun  or  is  still  incomplete. 

Dimensions  and  Morphology  of  the  Body  at  the  Various  Ages. — 
What  we  have  already  learned  regarding  stature  will  give  us  one 
test  in  our  diagnosis  of  infantilism:  the  increase  of  stature  and  the 
transformations  of  type  of  stature  concur  in  establishing  the  di- 
mensions and  the  morphology  of  the  body  (See  Stature,  Types  of 
Stature,  Diagrams). 

A  sufferer  from  infantilism  will  have,  for  example  at  the  age 
of  eleven,  a  stature  of  113  centimetres  and  a  statural  index  of  56, 
while  the  average  figures  give: 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     147 


Age 

Stature 

Index 

7  years  

111 

56 

8  years  

117 

55 

9  years  

122 

55 

10  years  

128 

54 

1  1  years  

132 

53 

Consequently,  in  such  a  case  the  eleven-year-old  patient  would 
have  the  appearance  of  a  child  of  seven,  not  only  in  stature  but 
also  in  the  relative  proportions  of  his  body.  (And  if  we  examined 
him  psychically,  we  should  probably  find  his  speech  was  not  yet 
perfected,  that  he  showed  a  tendency  toward  childish  games,  a 
mental  level  corresponding  to  the  age  of  seven  or  thereabouts; 
in  school  the  child  would  be  placed  in  the  first  or  second  elementary 
grade.) 

Accordingly  the  anthropological  verdict  of  infantilism  must 
not  be  based  upon  limits  of  measurement  alone,  but  also  upon 
the  proportions  of  the  body.  Every  age  has  its  own  morphology. 

Now,  such  changes  are  found  not  only  in  the  reciprocal  relations 
between  the  bust  and  the  limbs,  but  also  between  the  various 
parts  of  the  bust,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to  an  analytical 
study  of  the  morphology  of  the  head,  the  thorax  and  the  abdomen; 
the  detailed  anthropological  examination  of  the  individual  patient 
will  furnish  us  with  further  accompanying  symptoms  helpful  in 
establishing  a  diagnosis.  Further  on  we  shall  give  a  summarised 
table  of  the  morphology  of  the  body  from  year  to  year  (laws  of 
growth) ;  and  of  the  most  notable  and  fundamental  psychological 
characteristics  of  the  different  years  of  childhood;  so  that  a  teacher 
may  easily  derive  from  it  at  a  glance  a  comprehensive  picture 
that  will  aid  in  a  diagnosis  of  the  age,  and  hence  of  the  arrest  of 
development,  in  subjects  suffering  from  infantilism. 

Before  entering  upon  the  important  question  of  pathogenesis 
in  its  relation  to  infantilism,  I  will  reproduce  a  few  biographic 
notes  of  infantile  types,  taken  from  various  authorities: 

Giulio  B.  was  brought  to  the  clinic  because  of  his  continued 
love  for  toys,  notwithstanding  his  age.  At  seventeen  and  a  half  he 
retained  the  manners,  the  games  and  the  language  of  a  child  of 
between  ten  and  twelve.  In  appearance,  he  gave  the  impression 


148  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

of  being  between  thirteen  and  fourteen,  and  was  as  well  pro- 
portioned as  a  lad  of  that  age.  His  stature  was  1.45  meters 
(at  thirteen  the  average  stature  is  1.40  m.  and  at  fourteen  it  is 
1.48  m. ;  while  at  seventeen  it  ought  to  be  1.67  m.)  and  his  weight 
was  39  kilograms  (at  fourteen  the  weight  is  40  k.  and  at  seventeen 
it  is  57  k.) .  His  appearance  was  lively,  intelligent,  but  on  the  whole 
childish.  His  genital  organs  were  like  those  of  a  boy  of  twelve 
(Fig.  30).  The  patient  understood  all  that  was  said  to  him,  he 
could  read,  write  and  sing,  but  could  not  apply  himself  to  any 
serious  occupation;  he  did  not  read  the  papers,  but  would  amuse 
himself  by  looking  at  pictures  in  illustrated  books;  he  could  play 
draughts,  but  was  equally  pleased  when  playing  with  children's 
toys.  During  his  stay  at  the  clinic  he  was  several  times  punished 
for  childish  pranks:  he  filled  his  neighbour's  chamber  vessel  with 
stones,  and  amused  himself  by  making  little  paper  boats  and  sailing 
them  in  the  urine,  etc.  He  was  employed  as  a  page  at  an  all- 
night  cafe;  his  age  permitted  him  to  perform  this  work  forbidden 
to  children,  while  his  appearance  rendered  him  fitted  for  the  task. 
When  questioned  discreetly  regarding  his  sexual  functions,  or 
rather  his  sexual  incapacity,  he  understood  at  once,  and  expressed 
in  a  childish  way  his  deep  regret,  because  he  had  heard  it  said  that 
"that  was  why  they  wouldn't  let  him  serve  in  the  army." 

Vittorio  Ch.  Is  twenty-two  years  old  and  looks  about  eight 
or  ten.  Stature  1.15  metres  (average  stature  for  the  age  of  seven 
being  1.11  m. ;  for  eight,  1.17  m.).  Has  no  beard,  nor  any  signs  of 
virility;  genital  organs  like  those  of  a  child.  His  intelligence  is 
alert,  but  does  not  surpass  that  of  a  boy  of  .ten.  He  speaks 
correctly,  can  read,  write  and  sing;  plays  draughts,  but  does  not 
disdain  children's  toys,  and  prefers  looking  at  pictures  in  illus- 
trated books  to  reading  the  daily  papers.  After  the  death  of  the 
patient,  it  was  found,  as  a  result  of  the  autopsy,  that  the  epiphyses 
of  the  long  bones  had  not  yet  united  with  the  diaphyses,  and  that 
the  bones  of  the  skull  were  still  as  soft  as  those  of  a  child  (Fig.  31). 

Here  is  another  case,  taken  from  Moige:* 

It  is  the  case  of  a  young  working  girl,  presenting  all  the  appear- 
ance of  a  child  of  twelve  or  fourteen;  she  had  not  yet  attained 
puberty,  although  she  was  thirty  years  of  age.  No  external  sign 
gave  evidence  that  she  was  undergoing  the  sexual  transition  that 
should  give  her  womanhood.  Her  breasts  were  reduced  to  the 

*  MOIOE,  Nouvelle  Iconographie  de  la  Salpitriere,  1894. 


FIG.  30. — Boy,  seventeen  and 
one-half  years  old. 


FIG.  31. — Young  man, 
twenty-two  years  old. 


FIG.  32. — Idiotic  cretin, 
age  20  years,  stature 
1.095m. 


FIG.  33. — An  example  of 
myxedematous  infantil- 
ism. 


FIG.  34. — A  group  of  cretins  in  the  valley  of  Aosta  (Pied- 
mont). The  alteration  of  the  thyroid  gland  is  of  endemic 
origin. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     149 

mere  nipple,  as  in  infancy.  Her  voice  was  weak.  This  woman 
was  hysterical  and  subject  to  frequent  attacks  of  convulsions. 
Her  mental  condition  remained  infantile.  She  was  gentle,  docile, 
timid  and  apprehensive;  she  was  destitute  of  coquetry  or  sense  of 
shame. 

"Renato  L.,*  age  twenty-nine;  stature  1.30  m.  (average  stature 
at  the  age  of  ten,  1.28  m. ;  at  eleven,  1.32  m.)  weight,  32  kilograms 
(average  weight,  age  of  twelve,  31  k.).  It  appears  from  his  history 
that  he  developed  normally  up  to  the  age  of  nine,  after  which 
period  an  arrest  of  development  occurred,  both  physical  and  psy- 
chic. An  arrest  of  the  genital  organs  dates  back  also  to  early 
childhood.  His  intelligence  is  that  of  a  backward  child;  he  has 
never  been  able  to  read  or  write,  but  can  count  up  to  1000.  He 
has  never  been  able  to  learn  a  trade,  but  shows  some  talent  for 
drawing. 

His  criminal  instincts  seem  to  be  especially  developed.  He 
spends  whole  hours,  turning  over  the  leaves  of  popular  illustrated 
novels,  and  whenever  he  comes  across  a  picture  representing  a 
homicide  or  an  assassination,  he  utters  loud  exclamations  of 
delight.  He  has  only  one  passion,  tobacco,  and  only  one  object 
of  adoration,  Ravachol.  Very  violent,  extremely  irritable;  when 
he  is  angry,  he  would  kill  someone,  if,  as  he  says,  "he  had  the 
strength  for  it."  Although,  as  a  rule,  he  docilely  obeys  the 
orders  given  him,  it  is  because  he  is  "afraid  of  being  scolded." 
His  ideal  is  to  be  able  some  time  to  obtain  refuge  in  the  Hospice 
de  Bicetre. 

From  De  Sanctis's  work,  Gli  Infantilismi,  I  obtain  the  following 
data,  that  are  very  suggestive  on  the  anthropological  side,  regarding 
a  case  of  infantilism  observed  by  the  professor  in  his  asylum- 
school  for  defective  children,  in  Rome. 

Vincenzo  P.,  seven  years  of  age.  Father  in  good  health  and 
of  good  character.  Mother  small,  thin,  weak,  underfed;  has  had 
nine  children,  of  which  five  are  living,  all  feeble.  Vincenzo  was 
born  in  due  time,  birth  regular;  had  five  wet-nurses;  cut  his  teeth 
at  the  normal  intervals;  began  to  walk  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year  and  to  speak  at  the  end  of  the  first.  According  to  his  mother, 
all  went  well  until  the  fourth  year.  At  this  period,  Vincenzo 
became  very  troublesome  and  ceased  to  "grow  taller."  Later  on 
he  was  sent  to  the  communal  school,  but  the  director  of  the  school 

*  APEBT,  Op.  cit. 


150 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


in  the  Via  Ricasoli,  seeing  how  undersized  and  backward  he  was, 
sent  him  to  the  Asylum-School  for  defective  children. 

In  appearance  the  child  is  eurhythmic,  excepting  that  the  head 
appears  a  little  too  big  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  his  body;  but  it 
is  not  of  the  hydrocephalic  type  (an  infantile  characteristic).  He 
is  slightly  asymmetric,  the  postero-inferior  portion  of  the  right 
parietal  bone  being  more  depressed  than  that  of  the  left  (infantile 
plagiocephaly). 


M  easurements 


Of  the  child 


Normal  measurements 
at  the  age  of  seven 


Age  at  which  the  measure- 
ments of  Vincenzo  would 
be  normal 


Stature,  O.§70  m       

1.10  m. 

Three  years,  stature,  0.864  m. 

Weight,  12.400  kg  

20.16  kg. 

Two  years,  weight,  12  kg. 

Circumference    of    chest, 
0.507  m. 
Vital  index,  59  

0.55  m 

Vital  index,  54 

Four    years,    circumference    of 
chest,  0.505  m. 
Two  years,  vital  index,  59. 

The  bust  is  greatly  developed  in  comparison  with  the  lower 
limbs,  which  are  unquestionably  short.  (The  sitting  stature  was 
not  taken,  but  this  note,  recorded  from  simple  observation,  reminds 
us  of  the  enormous  difference  between  the  indices  of  stature  at  the 
age  of  two  or  three  and  at  the  age  of  seven:  Index  at  two  years 
=  63;  at  three  =  62;  at  seven  =  56.) 

But  although  we  lack  the  index  of  stature,  we  may  make  use 
of  the  vital  index,  which  is  given  by  the  proportion  between  the 
circumf erence  of  the  chest  and  the  stature,  and  consequently  gives 
us  an  index  of  the  morphology  of  the  bust  in  its  relation  to  the 
whole  personality;  thus  we  find  that  the  vital  index  corresponds 
in  the  present  case  to  that  of  a  child  of  two,  as  is  also  true  of  the 
weight,  so  that  we  may  deduce  that  the  index  of  stature  was 
probably  about  62-63. 

He  shows  no  impairment  as  to  external  sensations;  on  the  other 
hand,  internal  sensations,  such  as  satiety,  illness,  etc.,  are  blunted. 
His  power  of  attention  seems  sufficient,  both  at  play  and  in  school 
and  when  questioned.  Neither  does  his  memory  show  anything 
abnormal.  Emotionally,  he  is  below  the  normal  level;  he  says 
that  he  is  afraid  of  thunder;  occasionally  he  shows  annoyance 
when  disturbed;  but  it  is  equally  certain  that  he  never  becomes 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     151 

angry,  never  turns  pale  and  never  blushes,  as  the  result  of  any 
excitement.  He  is  of  an  indifferent  disposition  and  is  passive  in 
manner;  he  is  good  natured,  or  rather,  a  certain  degree  of  apathy 
makes  him  appear  so. 

All  things  considered,  his  mental  development  may  be  de- 
scribed as  that  of  a  three-year-old  child;  only  that  he  differs  from 
children  of  that  age  in  his  lack  of  vivacity  and  in  his  complete 
development  of  articulate  speech  (it  should  be  noted,  in  regard  to 
the  diagnosis  of  age  made  by  so  distinguished  a  psychologist  as 
De  Sanctis,  that  he  judged  the  child  to  have  a  psychic  development 
corresponding  to  the  age  of  three  years;  while  we,  studying  the 
general  measurements  of  the  body,  determined  that  they  corre- 
spond to  three  different  ages,  namely,  two,  three  and  four  the  aver- 
age of  which  is  precisely  three;  while  the  stature,  which  is  the  index 
of  development  of  the  body  as  a  whole,  corresponds  almost  exactly 
to  that  average  of  three  years  (0.870  m.,  0.864  m.). 

Pathogenesis  of  Infantilism. — At  this  point  it  might  be  asked : 
Why  do  we  grow?  We  hide  the  mechanism  of  growth  under  very 
vague  expressions:  biological  final  causes,  ontogenetic  evolution, 
heredity.  But,  if  we  stop  to  think,  such  expressions  are  not 
greatly  different  from  those  which  they  have  replaced:  the  divine 
purpose,  creation. 

In  other  words,  a  causal  explanation  is  lacking.  But  positive 
science  refuses  to  lose  itself  in  the  search  after  final  causes,  in  which 
case  it  would  become  metaphysical  philosophy.  Nevertheless,  it 
may  pursue  its  investigations  into  the  genesis  of  phenomena, 
whenever  the  results  of  experiments  permit  it  to  advance. 

So  it  is  in  the  case  of  growth;  certain  relatively  recent  dis- 
coveries in  physiology  have  made  it  possible  to  establish  relations 
between  the  development  of  the  individual  and  the  functions  of 
certain  little  glands  of  "  internal  secretion."  Now,  the  discovery 
of  these  relations  is  certainly  not  a  causal  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon  of  growth,  but  only  a  profounder  analysis  of  it. 

Hitherto,  we  have  considered  the  organism  in  regard  to  its 
chief  visceral  functions:  in  speaking  of  macroscelia  and  of  brachy- 
scelia,  we  considered  the  different  types  in  relation  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  organs  of  vegetative  life  and  the  organs  of  external 
relations:  the  central  nervous  system,  the  lungs,  the  heart,  the 
digestive  system.  Our  next  step  is  to  enter  upon  the  study  of 
certain  little  organs,  which  were  still  almost  ignored  by  the  ana- 


152  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tomy  and  physiology  of  yesterday.  These  organs  are  glands 
which,  unlike  other  glands  (the  salivary  glands,  the  pancreas,  the 
sudoriferous  glands,  etc.),  are  lacking  in  an  excretory  duct,  through 
which  the  juices  prepared  for  an  immediate  physiological  purpose 
might  be  given  forth;  and  in  the  absence  of  such  excretory  tubes, 
their  product  must  be  distributed  through  the  lymphatic  system, 
and  hence  imperceptibly  conveyed  throughout  the  whole  organism. 

One  of  these  glands,  the  one  best  known,  is  the  thyroid',  but 
there  are  others,  such,  for  example,  as  the  thymus,  situated 
beneath  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone,  and  much  reduced  in  size 
in  the  adult;  the  pineal  gland  or  hypophysis  cerebri,  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  encephalon;  the  suprarenal  capsules,  little  ear- 
shaped  organs  located  above  the  kidneys.  Up  to  a  short  time 
ago,  it  was  not  known  what  the  functions  of  such  glands  were; 
some  of  them  were  regarded  as  atavistic  survivals,  because  they 
are  more  developed  in  the  lower  animals  than  in  man,  and  con- 
sequently were  classed  with  the  vermiform  appendix  as  relics  of 
organs  which  had  served  their  functions  in  a  bygone  phylogenetic 
epoch  and  remain  in  man  without  any  function,  but  on  the  con- 
trary represent  a  danger  through  the  local  diseases  that  they  may 
develop.  The  cerebral  hypophysis  was  in  ancient  times  regarded 
as  the  seat  of  the  soul. 

These  glands  are  very  small;  the  largest  is  the  thyroid,  which 
weighs  between  thirty  and  forty  grams  (1  to  1  f  oz.) ;  the  supra- 
renal glands  weigh  four  grams  each  (about  60  grains) ;  the  hypophy- 
sis hardly  attains  the  weight  of  one  gram. 

.The  importance  of  these  glands  began  to  be  revealed  when 
antiseptic  methods  rendered  surgery  venturesome,  and  the  attempt 
was  made  (in  1882)  to  remove  the  thyroid  gland.  After  a  few 
weeks  the  patient  operated  on. began  to  feel  the  effects  of  the 
absence  of  an  organ  necessary  to  normal  life:  effects  that  may  be 
summed  up  as,  extreme  general  debility;  pains  in  the  bones  and 
in  the  head;  an  elastic  swelling  of  the  entire  skin;  enfeebled  heart 
action,  and  anemia;  and  on  the  psychic  side,  loss  of  memory, 
taciturnity,  melancholy.  After  the  lapse  of  some  time  the  patient 
showed  such  further  symptoms  as  the  shedding  of  the  cuticle  of 
the  skin,  whitening  of  the  hair  and  fades  cretinica. 

But  when  Sick  undertook  to  operate  upon  the  thyroid  of  a 
child  of  ten,  the  deleterious  effects  of  interrupting  the  above- 
mentioned  function  of  the  gland  manifested  itself  in  an  arrest  of 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     153 

development;  at  the  age  of  twenty-eight  the  patient  operated  on  by 
Sick  was  a  cretin  (idiotic  dwarf)  1.27  metres  tall  (average  stature  at 
age  of  ten  =  1.28  m.).  Since  that  time  certain  diseases  have  been 
recognised  that  call  to  mind  the  condition  of  patients  who  have 
undergone  an  operation  for  removal  of  the  thyroid  glands,  and 
in  which  the  subjects  have  suffered  from  hypothyroidea,  or  insuffi- 
cient development  of  the  thyroid. 

Such  individuals  were  characterised  by  nanism,  solid  edema 
of  the  skin,  arrest  of  psychic  development,  and  absence  of  develop- 
ment of  puberty;  this  malady  has  taken  its  place  in  medical 
treatises  under  the  name  of  myxedema;  and,  when  serious,  is  ac- 
companied by  nanism  and  myxedematous  idiocy.  But  in  mild 
cases  it  may  result  in  a  simple  myxedematous  infantilism. 

The  other  glands  of  internal  secretion  are  also  associated  with 
the  phenomena  of  growth.  First  in  importance  is  the  thymus 
which  is  found  highly  developed  in  the  embryo  and  in  the  child 
at  birth,  and  thereafter  diminishes  in  volume,  until  it  almost 
disappears  after  the  attainment  of  puberty.  In  the  psychological 
laboratories  of  Luciani,  at  Rome,  the  first  experiments  were  con- 
ducted upon  dogs,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what  alterations 
in  growth  would  result  as  a  consequence  of  the  removal  of  the 
thymus.  The  dogs  thus  operated  on  were  weak;  furthermore 
they  became  atrophied,  accompanied  by  roughness  of  the  skin 
and  changes  in  pigmentation.  After  this,  experiments  were 
made  in  the  Pediatric  Clinic  at  Padua,  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  Cervesato,  in  the  application  of  thymic  organotherapy 
(that  is,  the  use  of  animal  thymus  as  medicine)  with  notable 
success  in  the  case  of  atrophic  children  (infantile  atrophy  occurs 
in  early  infancy;  this  form  is  known  popularly  in  Italy  as  the 
"monkey  sickness."  Nursing  children  become  extremely  thin, 
cease  to  grow  in  length,  the  little  face  becomes  elongated  and 
skeleton-like,  and  is  frequently  covered  with  a  thick  down). 

Stoppato  also  obtained  analogous  results  in  infantile  atrophy 
and  anemia.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  very  rapid  growth  in 
the  embryo  is  associated  with  the  functional  action  of  the  thymus. 
And  this  is  also  true  of  the  very  rapid  growth  during  the  first 
years  of  a  child's  life. 

The  pituitary  gland,  or  cerebral  hypophysis,  has  also  functions 
associated  with  the  general  nervous  tone  and  trophism  (or  nourish- 
ment) of  the  tissues,  and  especially  of  the  osseous  system.  There 


154  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

is  a  disease  known  as  acromegalia  (Marie's  disease)  which  is 
characterised  by  an  abnormal  and  inharmonic  growth  of  the 
skeleton,  especially  in  the  limbs  and  the  jaw;  the  hands  and  feet 
become  enormously  enlarged,  while  the  jaw  lengthens  and  thickens 
(an  unhealthy  formation  on  which  the  common  people  of  Italy 
have  bestowed  the  name  of  "horse  sickness,"  because  of  the 
appearance  assumed  by  the  face).  Such  patients  complain  of 
general  and  progressive  debility  of  their  psychic  activities.  In 
such  cases,  an  autopsy  shows  an  alteration  of  the  pituitary  gland, 
often  due  to  malignant  tumors  (sarcoma). 

The  suprarenal  capsules  also  bear  a  relation  to  general  trophism 
and  particularly  to  the  pigmentation  of  the  skin.  It  was  already 
noted  by  Cassan  and  Meckel  that  the  negro  races  show  a  greater 
volumetric  development  of  the  suprarenal  capsules;  when  in  1885 
Addison  for  the  first  time  discovered  a  form  of  disease  associated 
with  alterations  of  the  suprarenal  capsules,  characterised  by  an 
intensely  brown  colouration  of  the  skin  (bronzed-skin  disease), 
general  debility  of  the  nervous  and  muscular  systems,  progressive 
anemia  and  mental  torpor;  the  malady  ends  in  death.  In  the 
case  of  animals  operated  on  for  physiological  experiments,  not 
one  of  them  has  been  able  to  survive. 

Some  interesting  observations  have  been  made  by  Zander 
on  the  connection  between  the  development  of  the  nervous  system 
and  the  suprarenal  glands.  He  found  that  there  was  an  insuffi- 
cient development  of  these  glands  in  individuals  having  terato- 
logical  (monstrous)  misshapements  of  the  brain,  as  in  the  case  of 
hemicephalus  (absence  of  one-half  the  brain),  Cyclops,  etc. 

There  exists  between  all  the  ductless  glands,  or  those  of 
internal  secretion,  an  organic  sympathy:  in  other  words,  if  one 
of  them  is  injured  the  others  react,  frequently  to  the  extent  of 
assuming  a  vicarious  (compensating)  functional  action. 

What  their  functional  mechanism  is,  that  is,  whether  the 
secretions  act  as  formative  stimulants  or  enzymes,  ferments  of 
growth,  or  whether  as  antitoxines  to  the  toxines  elaborated  by 
various  organs  in  the  process  of  regression,  is  a  question  still 
controverted  and  in  any  case  cannot  enter  within  the  limits  of  our 
field. 

It  is  enough  for  us  to  know  that  the  general  growth  of  the 
organism  and  its  morphological  harmony,  depend  not  only  as 
regards  the  skeleton,  but  equally  in  relation  to  the  cutaneous 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     155 

system  and  its  pigmentation,  the  development  of  the  muscles, 
the  heart,  the  blood,  the  brain,  and  the  trophic  functions  of  the 
nervous  system,  upon  some  formative  and  protective  action  of 
all  these  little  glands  of  " internal  secretion,"  with  which  are 
associated  the  psychic  activities  and  even  the  life  itself  of  each 
individual,  as  though  within  the  embryonic  crucible  there  must 
have  been  certain  substances  that  acted  by  stimulating  the 
genetic  forces  and  directing  the  trophism  of  the  tissues  toward  a 
predetermined  morphology. 

To-day  it  is  held  that  even  the  mother's  milk  contains  these  for- 
mative principles,  or  enzymes,  suited  to  stimulate  the  tissues  of  her 
own  child  in  the  course  of  their  formation;  consequently,  it  pro- 
duces results  which  no  other  milk  in  all  nature  can  replace. 

Alterations  in  these  glands  of  "internal  secretion"  may  there- 
fore produce  an  arrest  of  development — and,  in  mild  cases,  forms 
of  infantilism.  But  the  gland  which  in  this  connection  is  of  first 
importance  is  the  thyroid. 

Now  there  is  one  form  of  arrest  of  the  trophic  rhythm  of  growth 
which  may  be  due  to  hereditary  causes  effecting  the  formative 
glands  (myxedematous  infantilism),  or  to  exceptional  causes  occur- 
ring in  the  individual  himself  in  the  course  of  formation,  either  at 
the  moment  of  conception,  or  at  some  later  moment,  as  may  hap- 
pen even  during  the  period  of  infancy  (dystrophic  infantilism  of 
various  origin). 

In  all  these  cases,  however,  according  to  Hertoghe,  the  excep- 
tional causes,  deleterious  to  growth,  would  first  of  all  exercise  their 
influence  upon  the  glands  of  internal  secretion  and  especially  upon 
the  thyroid. 

In  order  to  make  clear,  in  connection  with  such  complex  patho- 
logical problems,  the  cases  which  are  important  from  the  point  of 
view  of  pedagogy  and  the  school,  let  us  divide  them  into : 

Myxedematous  infantilism,  due  to  congenital  insufficiency  of 
the  thyroid  gland  from  hereditary  causes,  and 

Dystrophic  infantilism,  associated  with  various  causes  dele- 
terious to  individual  development — and  acting  secondarily  upon 
the  glands  of  internal  secretion  (syphilis,  tuberculosis,  alcoholism, 
malaria,  pellagra,  etc.). 

Myxedematous  infantilism  is  characterised  by  short  stature,  by 
excessive  development  of  the  adipose  system,  and  by  arrest  of 
mental  development  (including  speech).  Such  infantiles  very 


156  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

frequently  have  a  special  morphology  of  the  face,  that  suggests  the 
mongol  type,  and  characteristic  malformations  of  the  hands  (little 
fingers  atrophied).  .  When  treated  with  extracts  of  the  thyroid 
glands  of  animals,  they  improve  notably;  they  become  thinner, 
they  gain  in  stature,  their  mentality  develops  to  the  extent  of 
permitting  them  to  study  and  to  work.  Certain  mongoloids 
treated  by  De  Sanctis  in  the  Asylum-School  at  Rome  were  im- 
proved to  the  point  of  being  able  to  attend  the  high-school  and 
therefore  were  restored  to  their  family  and  to  society  as  useful 
individuals — all  of  which  are  facts  that  are  of  singular  importance 
to  us  as  educators !  Medical  care  working  hand  in  hand  with  peda- 
gogy may  save  from  parasitism  individual  human  beings  who 
otherwise  would  be  lost.  We  ought  to  be  convinced  from  such 
evidence  of  the  necessity  of  special  schools  for  deficients,  wholly 
separated  from  the  elementary  schools,  and  where  medical  care 
combined  with  a  specially  adapted  pedagogic  treatment  may  trans- 
form the  school  into  a  true  "home  of  health  and  education." 
The  plan  of  a  "school  with  a  prolonged  schedule  of  hours,"  includ- 
ing two  meals  and  a  medical  office,  as  was  conceived  and  organised 
by  Prof.  Sante  de  Sanctis  in  Rome,  has  been  proved  to  answer 
admirably  to  this  social  need;  because  without  wholly  removing 
the  children  from  their  families,  and  therefore  without  exposing 
them  to  the  disadvantages  of  a  boarding  school,  it  provides  them 
with  all  the  assistance  necessary  to  their  special  needs. 

Dystrophic  Infantilism. — Given  a  case  of  infantilism,  discover- 
able by  the  teacher  through  the  general  measurements  of  the  body 
and  psychic  examination,  it  is  interesting  to  investigate  the  dele- 
terious causes. 

It  may  be  the  result  of  poisoning,  as  for  example  from  alcohol. 
Alcohol  has  such  a  direct  influence  upon  the  arrest  of  development 
that  in  England  jockeys  are  produced  by  making  the  lads  drink 
a  great  deal  of  alcohol.  Children  who  drink  alcohol  do  not  grow  in 
stature,  and  similarly  the  embryo  grows  in  a  less  degree  when  the 
mother  indulges  in  alcohol  during  pregnancy;  some  Swiss  women 
deliberately  resort  to  this  means,  in  order  that  a  smaller  child  may 
lessen  the  pain  of  child-birth.  But  alcohol  not  only  diminishes 
the  stature,  but  destroys  the  harmony  of  the  different  parts;  that 
is,  in  the  development  of  the  body  it  arrests  both  the  volumetric 
and  the  morphological  growth.  Furthermore,  alcohol  produces  in 
children  an  arrest  of  mental  development.  An  acquaintance 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     157 

with  this  principle  of  hygiene  should  be  looked  upon  by  the  teacher 
less  as  a  piece  of  special  knowledge  than  as  a  social  duty.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  educator,  the  fight  against  alcoholism 
should  have  no  assignable  limits!  It  would  be  vain  for  him  to 
perfect  his  didactic  methods  in  order  to  educate  a  child  that  drank 
wine  or  other  still  worse  alcoholic  liquors.  It  would  be  better  if 
the  efforts  which  he  meant  to  dedicate  to  such  educative  work 
could  be  all  turned  to  a  propaganda  directed  toward  the  parents 
of  such  children,  or  toward  the  children  themselves,  to  induce  them 
to  abstain  from  so  pernicious  a  habit! 

We  may  also  consider  in  the  category  of  poisonings  certain 
chronic  maladies  which  act  upon  the  organism  with  special  toxic 
(poisonous)  effects.  In  the  foremost  rank  of  such  maladies 
belongs 

Syphilis. — This  disease  is  ranked  among  the  principal  causes 
of  abortion;  in  other  words,  the  foetus  which  results  from  a  syphilitic 
conception  lacks  vitality,  and  often  fails  to  complete  the  cycle  of 
intrauterine  life.  But  even  granting  that  the  foetus  survives  and 
attains  its  complete  development,  the  child  after  birth  grows 
tardily,  and  very  often  remains  an  infantile.  It  is  well  known  that 
syphilis  has  been  transmitted  to  new-born  infants  at  the  time  of 
birth,  in  consequence  of  which  these  infants  may  in  turn  transmit 
syphilis  to  their  wet-nurses.  In  such  cases  they  are  really  sick 
and  need  medical  treatment  from  the  hour  of  their  birth.  Just 
as  in  the  adult  patient,  syphilis  has  several  successive  stages,  an 
acute  primary  stage,  with  plain  manifestations  of  hard  ulcers, 
erythema  diffused  over  the  skin  of  the  entire  body,  glandular 
infiltrations,  etc.,  and  then  secondary  and  tertiary  manifestations 
that  eventually  become  chronic  and  exhibit  almost  imperceptible 
symptoms;  so  in  the  case  of  children,  syphilis  may  be  transmitted 
in  various  degrees  of  virulence.  In  the  acute  stage  the  result  will 
be  abortion  or  the  child  will  be  still-born,  or  else  the  new-born 
child  will  plainly  exhibit  ulcerations  and  erythema,  but  at  other 
periods  of  the  disease,  the  child  may  bear  far  less  evident  signs 
of  its  affliction,  as  for  instance  a  special  form  of  corrosion  in  the 
enamel  of  its  teeth;  the  cervical  pleiades  or  enlargement  of  certain 
little  lymphatic  glands  like  the  beads  of  a  rosary,  distinguishable 
by  touch  in  the  posterior  region  of  the  neck;  certain  cranial  mal- 
formations (prominent  nodules  on  the  parietal  bones,  Parrot's 
nodes) ;  and  in  the  child's  whole  personality  an  under-development 


158  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

in  respect  to  its  age.  In  cases  like  these  the  teacher's  observations 
may  be  of  real  social  value,  because  the  child  has  shown  no  symp- 
toms of  such  a  nature  as  to  cause  the  parents  to  have  recourse  to  a 
physician,  and  it  is  the  child's  scholarship  (using  the  word  in  the 
broad  sense  of  the  way  in  which  the  child  reacts  in  the  environment 
of  school,  the  profit  he  derives  from  study,  etc.)  that  may  reveal 
an  abnormal  development  to  an  intelligent  teacher. 

The  first  indication  is  a  stature  below  what  is  normal  at  a  given 
age.  Such  observations  ought  to  be  obligatory  upon  teachers 
who  are  in  sympathy  with  the  new  ideas,  for  they  alone  can  be  the 
arbiters  of  the  rising  generations.  It  is  being  said  on  all  sides,  to 
be  sure,  with  optimistic  assurance  that  argues  a  deficiency  of 
critical  insight  and  common  sense,  that  an  adequate  education  of 
the  mothers  ought  to  enlighten  all  women  in  regard  to  the  laws  of 
growth  in  children  and  the  abnormalities  that  are  remediable. 
But  of  what  class  of  mothers  are  we  supposed  to  be  speaking? 
Certainly  not  of  the  great  mass  of  working  women  and  illiterates! 
certainly  not  of  the  women  who  have  been  constrained  to  hard 
toil  from  childhood  up,  and  later  on  condemned  to  abortion  because 
of  such  unjust  labor,  while  their  spirit  is  brutalized  and  their 
memory  loses  even  the  last  lingering  notion  of  an  alphabet!  It 
will  always  be  easier  and  more  practical,  in  every  way,  to  enlighten 
twenty-five  thousand  teachers  regarding  these  principles  than  to 
enlighten  many  millions  of  mothers;  not  to  mention  that  if  we 
wished  to  enlighten  these  mothers  in  a  practical  way  regarding  the 
principles  of  the  hygiene  of  generation,  we  should  still  have  to  in- 
voke the  services  of  that  very  class  whose  assigned  task  in  society 
is  precisely  that  of  educating  the  masses! 

The  teacher  can  and  should  learn  at  least  how  to  suspect  the 
presence  of  hereditary  syphilis  in  his  pupils,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
invoke  the  aid  of  the  physician,  leaving  to  the  latter  the  completion 
of  the  task,  namely,  the  eventual  cure.  It  is  well  known  that  iodide 
of  potassium  and  its  substitutes,  especially  if  used  at  an  early  stage, 
can  cure  syphilitic  children  and  therefore  save  innocent  boys  and 
girls  from  eventual  definite  arrest  of  development  and  from  all 
the  resultant  human  and  social  misery. 

Another  cause  that  is  deleterious  to  development  is 
Tuberculosis. — Although  it  has  now  been  demonstrated  that 
tuberculosis  is  not  hereditary,  as  an  active  disease — that  is,  we 
cannot  inherit  in  our  organism  localised  colonies  of  the  tuberculo- 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     159 

sis  bacillus,  because  the  bacilli  cannot  pass  through  the  placenta 
into  the  foetus  during  the  period  of  gestation — nevertheless  a  predis- 
position to  infection  from  the  bacillus  can  be  inherited. 

A  predisposition  which  consists  in  a  special  form  of  weakened 
resistance  of  the  tissues,  rendering  them  incapable  of  immunity,  and 
a  skeletal  formation  which  is  distinguished  by  a  narrowness  of 
the  chest,  and  a  consequent  smallness  of  lungs,  which,  being  unable 
to  take  in  sufficient  air,  constitute  a  locus  minoris  resistentice 
(locality  of  less  resistance)  to  localisation  of  the  bacilli.  Now, 
since  our  environment  is  highly  infected  by  the  bacilli  of  tuberculo- 
sis, we  must  all  necessarily  meet  with  it,  we  must  all  have  repeat- 
edly received  into  our  mouths  and  ah*  passages  Koch's  bacilli,  alive 
and  virulent;  and  yet  the  strong  organism  remains  immune,  while 
the  weak  succumbs.  Consequently  those  who  are  predisposed  by 
heredity  are  almost  fated  to  become  tuberculous,  and  in  this  sense 
the  malady  presents  the  appearance  of  being  truly  hereditary. 
But  such  organic  weakness  in  a  child  predisposed  to  tuberculosis 
is  manifested  not  only  by  possible  attacks  of  various  forms  of  the 
disease  localised  in  the  glands  (scrofula)  or  the  bones,  but  also 
by  a  delayed  development  of  the  whole  personality. 

Now,  the  environment  of  school  and  the  educative  methods 
still  in  vogue  in  our  schools,  not  only  are  not  adapted  to  correct 
such  a  predisposition,  but  what  is  more,  the  school  itself  creates 
this  predisposition!  In  fact,  the  sitting  posture — or  rather,  that 
of  stooping  over  the  desk,  to  write — and  the  prolonged  confine- 
ment in  a  closed  environment,  impede  the  normal  development  of 
the  thorax  and  of  all  the  physical  powers  in  general.  Many  a 
work  on  pedagogic  anthropology  has  already  shown  that  the  most 
studious  scholars,  the  prize-winners,  etc.,  have  a  wretched  chest 
measure,  and  a  muscular  force  so  low  as  to  threaten  ruin  to  their 
constitutions. 

Consequently,  children  who  are  predisposed  to  tuberculosis 
ought  unquestionably  to  be  removed  from  our  schools  and  cared 
for  and  educated  in  favourable  environments.  While  we  are  still 
impotent  in  the  face  of  fatalities  due  to  this  deplorable  disease, 
we  are  not  ignorant  of  the  means  needed  to  save  a  predisposed 
child  and  transform  him  into  a  robust  and  resistant  lad.  Such 
knowledge,  to  be  sure,  was  applied  to  mankind  only  as  a  second 
thought ;  for  the  first  men  to  apply  and  then  to  teach  such  means 
of  defence  were  the  owners  of  cattle  and  the  veterinaries.  The 


160  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

owners  of  cattle  discovered  that  if  a  calf  was  born  of  a  tuber- 
culous cow,  it  could  be  saved  and  become  an  excellent  head  of 
cattle,  if  only  it  was  subjected  to  a  very  simple  procedure;  the 
calf  must  be  removed  from  its  mother  and  given  over  to  be  nursed 
by  another  cow  in  the  open  country;  and  it  must  remain  in  the 
open  pastures  for  some  time  after  it  its  weaned. 

By  taking  similar  precautions  in  the  case  of  children,  it  has 
been  shown  that  the  son  of  a  tuberculous  woman,  if  entrusted  to 
a  wet-nurse  in  the  open  country,  and  brought  up  on  an  abundance 
of  nourishing  food  until  his  sixth  year  in  the  freedom  of  the  fields, 
can  be  made  as  robust  as  any  naturally  sound  child.  From  this  we 
get  the  principle  of  schools  in  the  open  air,  or  of  schools  in  the  woods, 
or  on  the  sea-shore,  for  the  benefit  of  weak,  anemic  children,  pre- 
disposed to  tuberculosis.  Such  a  sojourn  constitutes  the  "  School- 
Sanatorium,"  the  lack  of  which  is  so  grievously  felt  by  the  parents 
of  feeble  children,  and  that  might  so  easily  be  instituted  in  our  mild 
and  luxuriant  peninsula,  so  rich  in  hillsides  and  sea-coast! 

Malaria. — One  of  the  chief  causes  of  mortality  and  of  biological 
pauperism  in  many  regions  of  Italy  is  malaria.  This  scourge 
rages  even  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome.  The  country  folk  of  these 
abandoned  tracts  pine  away  in  misery  and  at  the  same  time  in 
illiteracy,  while  their  blood  is  impoverished  by  disease,  and  a 
notable  percentage  of  the  children  are  victims  of  arrested  development. 

These  unfortunates,  forgotten  by  civilisation,  are  destined  to 
roam  the  fields,  bearing  with  them,  till  the  day  of  their  death,  a 
deceptive  appearance  of  youth,  and  an  infantile  incapacity  for 
work,  an  object-lesson  of  misery  and  barbarity!  Among  the 
means  of  fighting  malaria,  the  spread  of  civilisation  and  the  school 
ought  to  find  a  place.  Even  the  quinine  given  freely  by  the  govern- 
ment is  distributed  with  difficulty  among  these  unhappy  people, 
brutalised  by  hunger  and  fever;  and  some  message  from  civil- 
isation ought  to  precede  the  remedy  for  the  material  ill.  A  far- 
sighted  institution  is  that  of  Sunday  classes  founded  by  Signor 
Celli  and  his  wife  in  the  abandoned  malarial  districts.  In  these 
classes,  the  teachers  from  elementary  schools  give  lessons  every 
Sunday,  spreading  the  principles  of  civic  life,  at  the  same  time  that 
they  distribute  quinine  to  the  children. 

If  we  stop  to  think  that  wherever  malaria  is  beaten  back,  it 
means  a  direct  conquest  of  fertile  lands  and  of  robust  men,  and 
hence  of  wealth,  we  must  realise  at  once  the  immense  importance 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     161 

of  this  sort  of  school  and  this  sort  of  struggle,  which  may  be  com- 
pared to  the  ancient  wars  of  conquest,  when  new  territories  and 
strong  men  constituted  the  prize  of  battles  won,  and  the  grandeur 
of  the  victorious  nations. 

Pellagra. — Pellagra  is  still  another  scourge  diffused  over  many 
regions  of  Italy.  It  is  well  known  that  this  disease,  whose  patho- 
logical etiology  is  still  obscure,  has  some  connection  with  a  diet 
of  mouldy  grain.  Pellagra  runs  a  slow  course,  beginning  almost 
unnoticed  in  the  first  year,  with  a  simple  cutaneous  eruption, 
which  the  peasants  sometimes  attribute  to  the  sun.  The  second 
year  disturbances  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  begin,  aggravated 
by  a  diet  of  spoiled  corn;  but  it  is  usually  not  until  the  third 
year  that  pellagra  reveals  itself  through  its  symptoms  of  great 
nervous  derangements,  with  depression  of  muscular,  psychic  and 
sexual  powers,  together  with  melancholia,  amounting  to  a  true 
and  special  form  of  psychosis  (insanity)  leading  to  homicide,  even 
of  those  nearest  and  dearest  (mothers  murdering  their  children) 
and  to  suicide. 

This  established  cycle  of  the  disease  is  not  invariable.  Instead 
of  representing  successive  stages,  these  symptoms  may  often  be 
regarded  merely  as  representing  the  prevailing  phenomena  in  various 
forms  of  pellagra;  in  any  case,  it  constitutes  a  malady  that  runs  a 
slow  course  during  which  the  same  patient  is  liable  to  many  relapses. 
While  the  malady  is  running  its  course,  the  patients  may  continue 
their  usual  physiological  and  social  life,  and  even  reproduce  them- 
selves. So  that  it  is  not  an  infrequent  case  when  we  find  mothers, 
suffering  from  pellagra,  nursing  an  offspring  generated  in  sickness 
and  condemned  to  manifold  forms  of  arrested  development,  both 
physical  and  mental. 

Against  a  disease  so  terrible  that  it  strikes  the  individual  and 
the  species,  it  is  now  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  there 
is  an  exceedingly  simple  remedy:  it  consists  in  a  strongly  nitrog- 
enous diet  (i.  e.  meat)  and  that,  too,  only  temporarily.  In  fact, 
in  the  districts  where  the  pellagra  rages,  various  charitable  organ- 
isations have  been  established,  among  others  the  economic  kitchens 
for  mothers,  which  by  distributing  big  rations  of  meat  effect  a  cure, 
within  a  few  months,  not  only  of  the  sick  mothers  but  of  their 
children  as  well. 

The  real  battle  against  pellagra  must  be  won  through  agrarian 
reforms:  but  in  the  meantime  the  local  authorities  could  in  no 


162  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

small  degree  aid  the  unhappy  population  with  their  counsel,  by 
enlightening  the  peasants  regarding  the  risks  they  run,  as  well  as 
by  informing  them  of  the  various  forms  of  organised  aid  actually 
established  in  the  neighbourhood  and  often  unknown  to  the  public 
or  feared  by  them,  because  of  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  with 
which  they  are  profoundly  imbued! 

Pauperism,  Denutrition,  Hypertrophy. — We  may  define  all  the 
causes  hitherto  considered  that  are  deleterious  to  growth,  as  tox- 
ical  dystrophies,  since  not  only  alcohol,  but  the  several  diseases 
above  discussed — syphilis,  tuberculosis,  malaria,  pellagra — produce 
forms  of  chronic  intoxication.  But  besides  all  these  various  forms 
of  dystrophies,  we  may  also  cite  cases  of  infantilism  due  purely 
to  defective  nutrition,  and  family  poverty.  Physiological  misery 
may  produce  an  arrest  of  growth  in  children. 

But  just  as  denutrition  associated  with  pauperism  (social 
misery,  economic  poverty,  lack  of  nourishment)  may  cause  an 
organism  in  course  of  development  to  arrest  its  processes  of  evolu- 
tion through  lack  of  material,  the  same  result  is  equally  apt  to 
be  produced  by  any  one  of  a  great  variety  of  causes  liable  to 
produce  organic  denutrition,  physiological  poverty. 

For  example,  too  frequent  pregnancies  of  the  child's  mother, 
which  have  resulted  in  impoverishing  the  maternal  organism, 
causing  deficiency  of  milk,  etc. 

Infant  Illnesses. — In  the  same  way,  organic  impoverishment 
is  caused  by  certain  maladies  of  the  digestive  system  which  impede 
the  normal  assimilation  of  nutritive  matter:  dysentery,  for  in- 
stance; and  the  effects  may  be  still  more  disastrous  if  symptoms 
of  this  kind  are  accompanied  by  feverish  conditions,  as  in  typhus. 

There  are  cases,  however,  in  which  the  arrest  of  development  is 
not  to  be  attributed  to  some  wasting  disease,  or  to  the  denutrition 
resulting  from  it;  but  rather  to  some  acute  illness  occurring  in  early 
childhood  (pneumonia,  etc.),  after  which  the  child  ceased  to  pro- 
gress in  accordance  with  his  former  obviously  normal  development. 

Anangioplastic  Infantilism. — Another  form  of  infantilism  is 
associated  with  a  malformation  of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels, 
that  is  to  say,  the  heart  and  aorta  together  with  the  entire  circu- 
latory system  are  of  small  dimensions;  the  calibre  of  the  arteries 
is  less  than  normal.  In  such  a  case  the  restriction  of  the  entire 
vascular  system  and  the  scantiness  of  circulation  of  the  blood 
constitute  an  impediment  to  the  normal  growth  of  the  organism. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     163 

Although  in  such  cases  the  explanation  of  the  cause  of  the  phenom- 
enon is  purely  mechanical,  nevertheless  such  abnormality  of  the 
heart  and  veins  is  to  be  classed  as  a  teratological  (monstrous) 
malformation,  determined  by  original  anomalies  of  the  ductless 
glands,  similar  to  what  is  found  in  cases  of  cephalic  and  cerebral 
monstrosities. 

In  this  form  of  infantilism  the  patient  shows  not  only  the  usual 
fundamental  characteristics  already  noted,  but  also  symptoms  of 
anemia  as  obstinate  to  all  methods  of  treatment  as  chlorosis  is; 
in  addition  to  which  they  often  show  congenital  malformations 
of  the  heart,  in  every  way  similar  in  their  effects  to  valvular 
affections  such  as  may  result  from  pathological  causes  (chief  of 
which  are  mitral  and  aortic  stenosis,  which  consist  of  a  stricture 
of  the  valves  connected  with  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart). 

Accordingly,  children  who  show  forms  of  mitral  infantilism  are 
inferior  to  their  actual  age  not  only  in  their  whole  psychosomatic 
appearance,  but  they  are  noticeably  weak,  pale  and  suffering  from 
shortness  of  breath  and  disturbances  of  the  circulation.  In  such 
cases,  neither  pedagogy  nor  hygiene  can  counteract  the  arrest  of 
development;  but  it  is  well  that  the  attention  of  teachers  should  be 
called  to  such  cases,  in  order  that  cruel  errors  may  be  prevented, 
which  would  unconsciously  do  additional  harm  to  individuals  al- 
ready burdened  by  nature  with  physiological  wretchedness. 

In  conclusion:  The  normal  growth  of  the  organism  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  functional  action  of  certain  glands  known  as  glands 
"of  internal  secretion, "  such  as  the  thymus  and  thyroid,  first  of  all, 
as  well  as  the  suprarenal  capsules  and  the  cerebral  hypophysis. 

This  group  of  formative  glands  presides  not  only  over  the  entire 
growth  of  the  body,  but  also  over  the  intimate  modeling  of  its 
structure;  so  that  a  lesion  or  deficiency  in  any  of  them  results  not 
only  in  nanism  and  an  arrest  of  mental  development,  but  in  various 
forms  of  general  dystrophy. 

That  the  organism  is  associated  in  the  course  of  its  trans- 
formations with  the  functional  action  of  specific  glands  is  shown 
by  the  development  of  puberty,  which  consists  in  a  series  of  trans- 
formations of  the  entire  organism,  but  is  associated  with  the  es- 
tablishment of  functional  activity  of  glands  that  were  hitherto 
immature:  the  genital  glands  (ovaries,  testicles).  These  glands 
also  are  functionally  in  close  sympathy  with  the  entire  group 
of  formative  glands:  so  much  so  that,  if  the  glands  of  in- 


164  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

ternal  secretion  are  injured,  the  genital  glands  usually  fail  to 
attain  normal  development  (infantilism).  Now,  the  transfor- 
mations which  take  place  in  the  organism  at  the  period  of  puberty 
might  be  produced  at  other  periods  if  the  functional  action  of  the 
generative  glands  should  show  itself  at  a  different  epoch.  That 
is,  these  transformations  are  not  associated  with  the  age  of  the 
organism,  but  with  the  development  of  specific  glands.  There  are 
cases  of  the  genital  glands  maturing  at  abnormal  ages;  or  of  local 
maladies  that  have  hastened  the  appearance  of  the  phenomena  of 
puberty  in  children  of  tender  years.  A  notable  case  is  that  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Sacchi,*  of  a  nine-year  old  boy,  who  had  grown 
normally  up  to  the  age  of  five  and  a  half,  both  in  his  physiological 
organism  and  in  his  psychic  personality.  At  the  age  of  five  and  a 
half,  the  child's  father  noticed  a  physical  and  moral  alteration; 
the  child's  voice  grew  deeper,  his  character  more  serious,  and  the 
skeletal  and  muscular  systems  grew  rapidly,  while  on  certain 
portions  of  the  body,  as  for  example  on  the  face,  a  fine  down 
appeared.  At  the  age  of  seven  the  child  had  attained  a  stature 
that  was  gigantic  for  his  age;  he  was  very  diligent  and  studious 
and  did  not  care  to  play  with  his  comrades.  At  nine,  he  had  a 
stature  of  1.45  metres  (the  normal  stature  being  1.22),  a 
weight  of  44  kilograms  (normal  =  24);  his  muscles  were  highly 
developed,  his  powers  of  traction  and  compression  being  equal  to 
those  of  a  man;  his  chin  was  covered  with  a  thick  beard  five  centi- 
metres long.  When  he  was  examined  by  a  physician,  the  latter 
discovered  a  tumor  in  the  left  testicle.  After  an  operation,  the 
child  lost  his  beard  and  regained  his  childish  voice;  his  character 
became  more  timid  and  sensitive;  he  began  once  more  to  enjoy  his 
comrades  and  take  part  in  boyish  games.  His  muscular  force 
underwent  a  notable  diminution. 

Rickets. — It  is  important  not  to  confound  any  of  the  various 
forms  of  infantilism  with  rickets.  Rickets  is  a  well-defined  malady 
whose  special  point  of  attack  is  the  osseous  system  in  course  of 
formation;  but  it  leaves  the  nervous  system  and  the  genital  system 
unimpaired.  The  sufferer  from  rickets  may  be  a  person  of  in- 
telligence, capable  of  attaining  the  highest  distinctions  in  art  or  in 
politics;  he  is  normal  in  his  genital  powers,  so  that  he  is  capable  of 
normal  reproduction,  without,  in  many  cases,  transmitting  any 
taint  of  rickets  to  his  descendants. 

*  Cited  by  Marro. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     165 

Nevertheless  this  disease,  like  all  constitutional  maladies,  occurs 
only  in  individuals  who  are  weakly. 

Among  the  characteristics  of  rickets,  the  one  which  assumes 
first  importance  is  inferiority  of  stature  in  comparison  with  the 
normal  man.  In  this  connection  I  quote  the  following  figures 
from  Bonnifay:* 


Age 

Stature  in  centimetres 

Rachitic  children 

Normal  children 

11  months  

66.5 
70.7 
75.8 
76.8 
91-93 
105.0 
110.6 
118.4 
121.6 

69.4 
74.8 
83.0 
91.9 
101.25 
106.8 
115.3 
119.0 
124.4 

2  years     .         

2—3  years  

3—4  years  

5—6  years  

6—7  years                          

7—8  years             

8-9  years  

9-10  years  

But  together  with  diminution  of  stature  there  exist  in  rickets 
various  deformities  of  the  skeleton,  especially  in  the  bones  of  the 
cranium,  in  the  vertebral  column  and  in  the  frame  of  the  thorax; 
although  even  the  pelvis  and  the  limbs  have  been  known  to  show 
the  characteristic  deformities. 

An  objective  knowledge  of  the  first  symptoms  of  rickets  ought 
to  be  regarded  as  indispensable  on  the  part  of  mistresses  in  chil- 
dren's asylums,  and  in  any  case  to  form  an  important  chapter  in 
pedagogic  anthropology.  For  it  is  well  known  that  in  the  early 
stages  of  rickets  the  child  may  be  so  guided  in  its  growth  as  to  save 
it  from  deformities  of  the  skeleton,  even  though  a  definite  limita- 
tion of  the  stature  may  not  be  prevented. 

That  is  to  say,  that  through  the  intervention  of  hygiene  and 
pedagogy  the  rachitic  child  may  be  saved  from  becoming  a  cripple 
or  a  hunchback,  and  will  simply  remain  an  individual  of  low  stature; 
with  certain  signs  and  proportions  of  the  skeleton  indicative  of  the 
attack  through  which  he  has  passed.  Even  in  very  severe  cases 
it  is  at  least  possible  to  minimize  the  deformity  of  the  thorax  and 
the  curvature  of  the  vertebral  column. 

*  Cited  by  Figueira,  Semejotica  Infantile,  p.  121. 


166  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  precursory  signs  of  rickets  in  a  child  are:  a  characteristic 
muscular  weakness,  frequently  accompanied  by  excessive  develop- 
ment of  adipose  tissue,  giving  an  illusory  impression  of  abundant 
nutrition;  delay  in  the  development  of  the  teeth  and  in  locomo- 
tion, which  from  the  very  beginning  may  be  accompanied  by  curva- 
ture of  the  long  bones  of  the  legs.  The  bregmatic  fontanelle  of  the 
cranium  closes  later  than  at  the  normal  period,  and  is  larger  than 
in  normal  cases,  just  as  the  entire  cerebral  cranium  is  abnormally 
developed  in  volume,  while  the  facial  portion  remains  small, 
especially  in  regard  to  the  jaw  bones. 

One  of  the  most  salient  characteristics,  however,  is  the  peculiar 
enlargement  of  the  articular  heads  of  the  long  bones,  easily  recog- 
nizable in  the  size  of  the  wrists:  the  enlargement  is  also  found  in  the 
extremities  of  the  ribs,  which  at  their  points  of  union  on  each  side 
of  the  sternum  form  a  succession  of  little  lumps,  like  the  beads  of  a 
rosary.  In  conjunction  with  these  characteristics,  it  is  to  be  noted, 
at  all  ages,  as  appears  from  the  figures  given  by  Bonnifay,  that 
there  is  a  notable  diminution  of  stature. 

The  treatment  of  rickets  is  medical  and  pedagogical  combined. 
Children  of  this  type  should  be  removed  from  the  public  school, 
where  the  school  routine  might  have  a  fatally  aggravating  effect 
upon  the  pathological  condition  of  such  children.  In  fact,  gym- 
nastics based  upon  marching  and  exercising  in  an  erect  position, 
together  with  a  prolonged  sitting  posture,  are  likely  to  produce 
weaknesses  of  the  skeleton  and  deformities,  even  where  there  are 
no  symptoms  of  rickets! 

The  establishment  of  infant  asylums  for  rachitic  children  is 
one  of  the  most  enlightened  movements  of  the  modern  school. 
We  Italians  are  certainly  not  the  last  to  found  such  institutions, 
and  Padua  possesses  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  perfect  asylums 
of  this  sort  of  which  Europe  can  boast.  Asylums  for  rachitic  chil- 
dren ought  to  have  a  special  school  equipment,  so  far  as  concerns 
the  benches  and  the  apparatus  for  medical  and  orthopedic  gymnastics; 
furthermore  they  should  be  provided  with  a  pharmaceutical  stock 
of  remedies  suited  to  building  up  the  osseous  system  and  the  organ- 
ism in  general;  and  a  school  refectory  should  be  provided,  adapted 
to  the  condition  of  the  children.  The  methods  of  instruction 
should  rigorously  avoid  any  form  of  fatigue,  and  instead  provide 
the  child  with  psychic  stimuli  designed  to  overcome  a  sluggishness 
due  to  the  mental  prostration  to  which  he  is  for  the  most  part 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     167 

subject.  As  regards  their  situation,  these  asylums  for  rachitic 
children  may  be  advantageously  located  upon  the  sea-coast. 

The  Stature  of  Abnormals. — The  name  of  abnormals  is  applied 
to  the  entire  series  of  individuals  who  are  not  normal:  hence  the 
categories  already  considered  (infantilism,  gigantism,  rachitis)  are 
included  by  implication.  The  group  of  abnormals,  however,  in- 
cludes besides  a  long  series  of  other  classes,  neuropathies,  epileptics, 
and  degenerates. 

Under  the  head  of  abnormals  may  also  be  included  those  who 
are  abnormal  in  character,  such  as  criminals,  etc.  It  is  not  irra- 
tional to  group  together  the  different  types  of  abnormals,  for  the 
purpose  of  anthropological  research,  in  contrast  with  those  who  are 
normal.  In  America,  for  instance,  such  studies  are  conducted  on 
a  large  scale,  precisely  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  deviation  of 
abnormal  dimensions  of  the  body  from  normal  dimensions,  not 
only  in  the  definitive  development  of  the  body,  but  also  during 
growth.  The  abnormals  depart  from  the  mean  measurements, 
now  rising  above  and  again  falling  below,  as  though  they  were 
intermittently  impelled  by  the  biological  impulse  of  their  organ- 
ism, which  at  one  time  manifests  a  hypergenesis  and  at  another  a 
hypogenesis.  A  clear  illustration  of  these  facts  is  afforded  by 
MacDonald's  diagram  (see  page  168):  the  solid  line  which  rises 
regularly  represents  the  growth  in  stature  of  normal  individuals; 
the  dotted  line  which  forms  a  zig-zag,  now  rising  rapidly  above  the 
normal  line  and  then  falling  very  much  below  it,  represents  the 
growth  in  stature  of  the  abnormals.  Naturally  such  a  chart 
must  be  interpreted  by  comparison  with  the  standards  of  mean 
measurements  gathered  at  successive  ages  from  a  large  number 
of  different  children.  It  shows  that  normal  children  are  nearly 
uniform  among  themselves,  and  in  relation  to  the  years  of 
their  growth:  while  abnormal  children  differ  greatly  one  from 
another  and  do  not  accord  with  the  mean  stature  of  the  age  they 
represent. 

Regarding  the  stature  of  criminals  there  can  be  nothing  special 
to  say :  criminals  do  not  represent  an  anthropological  entity.  They 
belong  to  a  large  extent,  whenever  the  criminal  act  has  a  psycho- 
physiological  basis,  to  various  categories  of  abnormals.  From  the 
victim  of  rickets  to  the  infantile,  to  the  submicrocephalic,  to  the 
ultra-macroscele  or  ultra-brachyscele,  all  abnormal  organisms  may 
contribute  to  the  number  of  those  predisposed  to  the  social  phenom- 


168 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Xac-  Donald 


enon  of  criminality.  And  it  is  for  this  reason  that  we  may  say 
in  general  that  the  stature  of  abnormals  is  sometimes  above  and 
sometimes  below  the  normal,  but  with  a  prevailing  tendency  to 
fall  below. 

Moral  and  Pedagogic  Considerations. — The  objection  may  be 
raised  that  a  medico-pedagogic  system  of  treatment,  designed  to 
prevent  a  threatened  arrest  of  development  or  to  minimise  its 
progressive  symptoms,  demands  on  the  part  of  society  an  excessive 

effort,  out  of  proportion  to  the  end 
in  view.  To  cure  or  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  the  weak  may 
even  be  regarded  as  a  principle  of 
social  ethics  that  is  contrary  to 
nature,  whose  laws  lead  inexorably 
to  the  selection  of  the  strong  and 
to  the  elimination  of  all  those  who 
are  unfitted  for  the  struggle  for 
life.  Sparta  has  furnished  us  with 
a  practical  example  that  is  very 
far  from  the  principles  which 
scientific  pedagogy  is  to-day  seek- 
ing to  formulate  as  a  new  neces- 
sity of  social  progress. 

But  we  are  too  far  removed 
from  the  triumphant  civilisation 
of  Greece,  to  recur  to  the  author- 
ity of  her  example:  the  principle 
sanctioned  to-day  by  modern 
civilisation,  that  of  "  respect  for 
human  life,"  forbids  the  violent 
elimination  of  the  weak:  Mount 

Taygetus  is  no  longer  a  possible  fate  for  innocent  babes  in  a  social 
environment  the  civic  spirit  of  which  has  abolished  the  death 
penalty  for  criminals.  Consequently,  since  the  weak  have  a  right 
to  live,  as  many  of  them  as  naturally  survive  are  destined  to  be- 
come a  burden,  as  parasites,  upon  the  social  body  of  normal 
citizens;  and  they  furnish  a  living  picture  of  physiological  wretch- 
edness, a  spectacle  of  admonitory  misery,  inasmuch  as  it  repre- 
sents an  effect  of  social  causes  constituting  the  collective  errors  of 
human  ethics.  Ignorance  of  the  hygiene  of  generation,  maladies 


•  Stature  vf  normal  persons 
•Staturt  of  abnormal  persons 

FIG.  35. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     169 

due  to  the  vices  and  the  ignorance  of  men,  such  as  syphilis,  other 
maladies  such  as  tuberculosis,  malaria  and  pellagra,  representing 
so  many  scourges  raging  unchecked  among  the  people,  are  the 
actual  causes  that  are  undermining  the  social  structure,  and  mani- 
festing themselves  visibly  through  their  pernicious  fruit :  the  birth 
of  weaklings.  To  forget  the  innocent  results  of  such  causes,  as 
we  forget  the  causes  themselves,  would  be  to  run  the  risk  of  plung- 
ing precipitously  into  an  abyss  of  perdition.  It  is  precisely  these 
disastrous  effects  upon  posterity  that  ought  to  warn  us  and  shed 
light  upon  the  errors  through  which  we  are  passing  lightly  and 
unconsciously.  Accordingly,  to  gather  in  all  the  weaklings  is 
equivalent  to  erecting  a  barrier  against  the  social  causes  which 
are  enfeebling  posterity:  since  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  that  if 
the  existence  of  such  a  danger  were  once  demonstrated,  society 
would  rest  until  every  effort  had  been  made  to  guard  against  the 
possibility  of  its  recurrence. 

In  addition  to  such  motives  for  human  prophylaxis,  a  more 
immediate  interest  should  lead  us  to  the  pedagogic  protection  of 
weak  children.  The  establishment  of  special  schools  for  defective 
children,  sanatarium-schools  for  tuberculous  children,  rural  schools 
for  those  afflicted  with  malaria  and  pellagra,  infant  asylums  for 
rachitic  children,  is  a  work  of  many-sided  utility.  They  constitute 
a  fundamental  and  radical  purification  of  the  schools  for  normal 
children :  in  fact,  so  long  as  intellectual  and  moral  defectives  and 
children  suffering  from  infantilism  and  rachitis  intermingle  with 
healthy  pupils,  we  cannot  say  that  there  really  exist  any  schools 
for  normal  children,  in  which  pedagogy  may  be  allowed  a  free 
progress  in  the  art  of  developing  the  best  forces  in  the  human 
race. 

Still  another  useful  side  to  the  question  is  that  of  putting  a  stop 
to  the  physiological  ruin  of  individual  weaklings.  Very  small 
would  be  the  cost  of  schools  for  defective  children,  asylums  for  the 
rachitic,  tonics,  quinine,  the  iodide  treatment,  school  refectories  for 
little  children  afflicted  with  hereditary  taints  and  organic  disease: 
very  small  indeed,  in  comparison  to  the  disastrous  losses  that  society 
must  one  day  suffer  at  the  hands  of  these  future  criminals  and 
parasites  gathered  into  prisons,  insane  asylums  and  hospitals,  in 
comparison  to  the  harm  that  may  be  done  by  one  single  victim 
of  tuberculosis  by  spreading  the  homicidal  bacilli  around  him.  It 
is  a  principal  of  humanity  as  well  as  of  economy  to  utilise  all  human 


170  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

forces,  even  when  they  are  represented  by  beings  who  are  appar- 
ently negligible.  To  every  man,  no  matter  how  physiologically 
wretched,  society  should  stretch  a  helping  hand,  to  raise  him. 
In  North  America  the  following  principle  has  the  sanction 
of  social  custom:  that  the  task  of  improving  physiological  condi- 
tions and  at  the  same  time  of  instilling  hope  and  developing 
inferior  mentalities  to  the  highest  possible  limit  constitutes  an 
inevitable  human  duty. 

Accordingly  it  remains  for  the  science  of  pedagogy  to  accom- 
plish the  high  task  of  human  redemption,  which  must  take  its 
start  from  those  miracles  that  the  twentieth  century  has  already 
initiated  in  almost  every  civilised  country:  straightening  the 
crippled,  giving  health  to  the  sick,  awakening  the  intelligence  in 
the  weak-minded — much  as  hearing  is  restored  to  the  deaf  and 
speech  to  the  mutes — such  is  the  work  which  modern  progress 
demands  of  the  teacher.  Because  such  straightening  of  mind  and 
body  naturally  lies  within  the  province  of  those  who  have  the 
opportunity  to  give  succor  to  the  human  being  still  in  the 
course  of  development;  while  after  a  defect  has  reached  its 
complete  development  in  an  individual,  no  manner  of  help  can 
ever  modify  the  harm  that  has  resulted  from  lack  of  intelligent 
treatment. 

The  prevention  of  the  irremediable  constitutes  a  large  part  of 
the  work  which  is  incumbent  upon  us  as  educators. 

SUMMARY  OF  STATURE 

We  have  been  considering  stature  as  the  linear  index  of  the 
whole  complex  development  of  the  body,  taking  it  in  relation 
to  two  other  factors,  the  one  internal  or  biological,  and  the 
other  external  or  social.  These  two  factors,  indeed,  unite  in 
forming  the  character  of  the  individual  in  his  final  develop- 
ment; and  in  each  of  them  education  may  exert  its  influence, 
both  in  connection  with  the  hygiene  of  generation  and  through 
reforms  instituted  in  the  school. 

In  the  following  table  are  summed  up  the  different  points  of 
view  from  which  we  have  studied  stature  in  its  biological  character- 
istics and  in  its  variations: 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     171 


Ethnic  varieties 
and  limits  of 
oscillation 

Biological 
varieties 


Variations 

due  to 
adaptation 


Pathological 
variations 


Mechanical 


Physical 
Psychic 


Infantilism 


Stature  in  different  races;  extreme  limits. 

Stature  of  the  Italian  people;  and  its  geographical 

distribution. 

Limits  of  stature:  medium,  tall,  low. 
Difference  of  stature  in  the  sexes. 
Stature  at  different  ages  (growth). 

Transitory  or  physiological. 
Permanent,  often  accompanied  by 
deformities.     (Causes:   the    atti- 
tudes required  by  the  work.) 
Physiological    {    Nutrition. 
Heat. 
Light. 
Electricity. 
Psychic  stimuli. 
Myxedematous. 

from  alcohol, 
from  syphilis. 

Dystrophic      j   from  tuberculosis, 
from  malaria, 
from  pellagra. 
Denutrition. 


Rachitis 


Hypotrophic  { 
.  Anangioplastic 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SCIENTIFIC  PRINCIPLES  ILLUSTRATED  IN  THE 
COURSE  OF  THE  EXPOSITION  OF  OUR  SUBJECT 

When  an  anthropological  datum  is  of  such  fundamental  im- 
portance as  the  stature,  its  limits  of  oscillation  must  be  established, 
and  its  terminology  must  be  founded  upon  such  limits  expressed 
in  figures  that  have  been  measured  and  established  by  scientists 
(medium,  tall,  low). 

The  stature  is  the  most  important  datum  in  pedagogic  anthro- 
pology, because  it  represents  the  linear  index  of  the  development  of 
the  body,  and  for  us  educators  is  also  the  index  of  the  child's 
normal  growth. 

Bio-pathological  Laws. — In  cases  of  total  arrest  of  development 
of  the  personality  (infantilism)  the  first  characteristic  symptom 
usually  consists  in  a  diminution  of  stature  in  relation  to  age;  the 
morphological  evolution,  as  well  as  the  psychic,  fails  to  progress  in 
proportion  to  the  age  of  the  subject;  but  it  corresponds  to  the  mean 
bodily  proportions  belonging  to  the  age  which  would  be  normal 
for  the  actual  stature  of  the  subject. 


172  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

WEIGHT 

The  weight  is  a  measure  which  should  be  taken  in  conjunction 
with  the  stature;  because,  while  the  stature  is  a  linear  index  of  the 
development  of  the  body,  the  weight  represents  a  total  measure 
of  its  mass;  and  the  two  taken  together  give  the  most  complete 
expression  of  the  bio-physiological  development  of  the  organism. 

Furthermore  the  weight  permits  us  to  follow  the  oscillations  of 
development;  it  provides  educators  with  an  index,  a  level  of  ex- 
cellence, or  the  reverse,  of  their  methods  as  educators,  and  of  the 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  school  or  of  the  pedagogic  methods  in 
use. 

The  fact  is,  that  if  a  child  is  ill,  or  languid,  etc.,  his  stature  re- 
mains unchanged;  it  may  grow  more  slowly,  or  be  arrested  in 
growth;  but  it  can  never  diminish.  The  weight,  on  the  contrary, 
can  be  lost  and  regained  in  a  short  time,  in  response  to  the  most 
varied  conditions  of  fatigue,  of  malnutrition,  of  illness,  of  mental 
anxiety.  We  might  even  call  it  the  experimental  datum  of  the 
excellence  of  the  child's  development. 

Another  advantage  which  the  measure  of  weight  has  over  that 
of  stature  is  that- it  may  serve  as  an  exponent  of  health  from  the  very 
hour  of  the  child's  birth;  while  stature  does  not  exist  in  the  new- 
born child,  and  begins  to  be  formed  (according  to  the  definition 
given)  only  after  the  first  year  of  its  life,  that  is,  when  the  child 
has  acquired  an  erect  position  and  the  ability  to  walk  steadily. 

Variations. — Weight  is  one  of  the  measures  that  have  been 
most  thoroughly  studied,  because  it  is  not  a  fruit  of  the  recently 
founded  science  of  pedagogic  anthropology;  but  it  enters  into  the 
practice  of  pediatricians  (specialists  in  children's  diseases)  and  of 
obstetricians  (specialists  in  child-birth),  while  even  the  general 
practitioner  can  offer  precious  contributions  from  his  experience. 

According  to  Winckel,  and  practically  all  pediatricians  agree 
with  him,  "the  weight  of  a  child,  if  taken  regularly,  is  the  best 
thermometer  of  its  health;  it  easily  expresses  in  terms  of  figures 
what  the  nursing  child  cannot  express  in  words."* 

The  new-born  child  weighs  from  three  to  four  kilograms;  but 
oscillations  in  weight  from  2,500  to  5,000  grams  are  considered 
normal.  Some  obstetricians  have  noted  weights  in  new-born  chil- 

1  Cited  by  FIGUEIRA.  (Rio  Janeiro)  in  his  volume,  Elementi  di  Semejotica infantile,  1906. 
From  this  volume,  which  contains  the  result  of  the  most  modern  investigations  in  pediatry, 
I  have  taken  a  number  of  data  regarding  the  weight  of  children. 


dren  that  are  enormous,  true  gigantism,  which,  however,  while  pos- 
sible, are  altogether  exceptional;  nine  and  even  eleven  kilograms. 
The  oscillations  in  weight  of  the  child  at  birth,  within  normal 
limits,  may  have  been  determined  by  general  biological  factors,  as 
for  example  the  sex  (the  female  child  weighing  less  than  the  male), 
and  the  race  (especially  in  regard  to  the  stature  of  the  parents) : 
but  the  factors  which  influence  the  weight  of  the  new-born  child 
in  a  decisive  manner  are  those  regarding  the  hygiene  of  generation. 

1.  "The  children  which  have  the  greater  weight  are  those  born 
of  mothers  between  the  ages  of  twenty-five  and  thirty."    (Mathews 
Duncan.)     Let  us  recall  what  we  have  said  regarding  stature;  at 
the  end  of  the  twenty-fifth  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of  the  period 
of  growth,  man  is  admirably  ripe  for  the  function  of  reproduction ; 
and  we  ought  further  to  recall  the  views  cited  regarding  the  mortal- 
ity of  children  conceived  at  this  age  which  is  so  favourable  to 
parenthood;  and  finally  the  note  in  regard  to  celebrated  men, 
almost  always  begotten  at  this  age. 

2.  "  First-born  children  have  in  general  a  weight  inferior  to  that 
of  those  born  later  (1,729  first-born  children  gave  an  average  of 
3,254   grams:  while    1,727   born   of   the   second   or   subsequent 
conceptions  gave  an  average  of  3,412  gr."  (Ingerslevs).     Let  us 
remember  that  celebrated  men  are  scarcely  ever  the  fiirst-born. 

3.  "Very    short    intervals    between    successive    pregnancies 
interfere  with  this  progression  in  weight;  long  intervals  on  the 
contrary  do  not  interfere  with  it"  (Wernicke).     In  other  words, 
too   frequent   pregnancy  is   unfavourable   to   the   result  of  the 
conception. 

4.  "Mothers  who,  at  the  birth  of  their  first  child  weigh  less 
than  fifty-five  kilograms  and  are  under  twenty  years  of  age,  have 
children  of  inferior  weight,  who  are  less  predisposed  to  normal 
growth"  (Schafer). 

Let  us  recall  what  we  have  said  regarding  the  form  and  the 
scanty  weight  in  the  case  of  macrosceles;  and  also  in  regard  to  the 
age  of  procreation  in  its  relation  to  stature. 

5.  "Women  who  toil  at  wearisome  work  up  to  the  final  hour 
give  birth  to  children  inferior  in  weight  to  those  born  of  mothers 
who  have  given  themselves  up  to  rest  and  quiet  for  some  time 
before  the  expected  birth"  (Pinard). 

All  these  considerations  which  refer   to   normal  individuals, 

represent  a  series  of  hygienic  laws  regarding  maternity,  which  may 
12 


174  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

be  summed  up  as  follows:  excellence  in  procreation  belongs  to 
those  mothers  who  have  already  attained  the  age  at  which  the 
individual  organism  has  completed  its  development,  and  before  it 
has  entered  upon  its  involutive  period;  the  mother  must  herself 
have  a  normal  weight;  the  pregnancies  must  be  separated  by  long 
intervals;  and  during  the  last  weeks  of  pregnancy  it  is  necessary 
that  the  mother  should  have  the  opportunity  of  complete  rest. 

The  increase  in  weight  of  the  new-born  child  during  the  first 
days  of  its  life,  may  constitute  a  valuable  prognostic  of  the  child's 
life.  That  is  to  say,  through  its  successive  gains  it  reveals  the 
vitality,  the  state  of  health  of  this  new  human  being. 

Here  also  the  pediatrists  can  furnish  us  with  valuable  experi- 
mental data,  which  serve  to  formulate  the  "laws  of  growth." 
These  are: 

1.  From  the  moment  of  a  child's  birth,  throughout  the  first 
two  days,  it  suffers  a  loss  in  weight  of  about  200  grams,  due  to 
various  causes,  such  as  the  emission  of  substances  accumulated 
in  the  intestines  during  the  intrauterine  life  (meconium),  and  the 
difficulties  of  adaptation  to  a  new  environment  and  to  nutrition. 
But  by  the  end  of  the  first  week  a  normal  child  should  have  regained 
its  original  weight;  so  that  after  the  seventh  day  the  normal 
child  weighs  the  same  as  at  the  moment  of  birth. 

On  the  contrary,  children  born  prematurely,  or  those  having 
at  the  time  of  birth  a  weight  below  the  average,  or  those  that  are 
affected  with  latent  syphilis,  or  are  weak  from  any  other  cause 
whatever,  regain  their  original  weight  only  by  the  end  of  the  second 
week. 

Accordingly,  in  one  or  two  weeks  the  family  may  form  a  prog- 
nosis regarding  future  life  of  the  new-born  child :  a  matter  of  funda- 
mental and  evident  importance. 

Furthermore,  an  antecedent  detail  of  this  sort  may  be  valuable 
in  the  progressive  history  of  subjects  who,  having  attained  the  age 
for  attendance  at  school,  come  to  be  passed  upon  by  the  teachers. 

To  this  end,  in  the  more  progressive  countries,  the  carnet 
maternel,  or  mother's  note-book,  has  begun  to  come  into  fashion, 
for  the  use  of  mothers  belonging  to  the  upper  social  classes  (as,  for 
instance,  in  England) :  it  consists  of  a  book  of  suitable  design,  in 
the  form  of  an  album,  and  more  or  less  de  luxe  in  quality,  in  which 
the  most  minute  notes  are  to  be  registered  regarding  the  lives  of 
the  children  from  the  moment  of  their  birth  onward.  Various 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     175 


authors,  especially  in  France,  now  give  models  for  the  maternal 

registration  of  the  child's  physiological  progress;  true  biographic 

volumes  that  would  form  a  precious  supplement  to  the  biographic 

charts  of  the  schools :  and  the  efforts  of  the  family  would  round  out 

and  complete  those  of  the  school  for  the  protection  of  the  lives  of 

the  new  generations.     Such  assistance,  however,  is  only  an  ideal, 

because  nothing  short  of  a  great  and  far  distant  social  progress 

could  place  all  mothers  (the  working  women,  and  the  illiterate  of 

Italy)  in  a  position  to  compile 

their  carnet  maternel.     Auvard 

advocates,    for  registering    the 

weight  of  the  child  during  the 

first  days  of  its  life,  a  table  in 

which  the  successive  days  from 

the  first  to  the  forty-fifth  are 

marked  along  a  horizontal  line, 

while  a  vertical  column  gives  a 

series  of  weights,  with  25-gram 

intervals,   covering  a  range  of 

700  grams,   the  multiples  of  a 

hundred  being  left  blank,  to  be 

determined  by  the  actual  weight 

of  the  child  and  filled  in  by  the 

mother  or  whoever  takes  her 

place. 

In  such  a  table,  the  graphic 
sign  indicating  the  changes  in 
weight  ought  to  fall  rapidly  and  rise  again  to  the  point  of  departure 
by  the  seventh  day,  if  the  child  is  robust. 

Another  law  of  growth  which  may  serve  as  a  prognostic  docu- 
ment in  the  child's  physiological  history  is  the  following: 

2.  "Children  nourished  at  their  mother's  breast  double  their 
weight  at  the  fifth  month  and  triple  it  at  the  twelfth."  In  other 
words,  before  the  middle  of  its  first  year  a  healthy  child,  normally 
nourished,  will  have  doubled  its  weight. 

On  the  contrary,  "Artificial  feeding  retards  this  doubling  of 
weight  in  children,  which  is  attained  only  by  the  end  of  the  first 
year;  so  that  the  weight  is  not  tripled  until  some  time  in  the  course 
of  the  second  year." 

And  this  gives  us  pretty  safe  principles  on  which  to  judge  of  the 


FIG.  36. 


176  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

personality  in  the  course  of  formation,  at  an  epoch  when  stature 
does  not  yet  exist. 

Undoubtedly  a  great  moral  and  social  progress  would  be  accom- 
plished through  a  wide  dissemination  of  very  simple  and  economical 
carnets  maternels;  which  should  contain  not  only  tables  designed 
to  facilitate  the  keeping  of  the  required  records,  but  also  a  state- 
ment of  the  laws  of  infant  hygiene;  or  at  least,  simple  and  clear 
explanations  of  the  significance  of  such  phenomena,  in  relation  to 
the  life  and  health  of  the  child;  and  also  as  to  the  causes  which 
produce  weakness  in  new-born  children;  or  in  other  words,  advice 
regarding  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  hygiene  of  generation. 
All  that  would  be  needed,  in  such  case,  would  be  a  progressive 
exposition  by  means  of  the  carnets,  through  lessons  made  as 
simple  and  as  objective  as  possible,  such  as  the  weighing  of  small 
babies,  to  make  the  much  desired  ''education  of  the  mothers" 
both  possible  and  practical. 

But  without  this  practical  means;  without  this  new  sort  of 
syllabarium  on  hand,  to  serve  as  a  constant  and  luminous  guide 
for  married  women,  I  do  not  believe  that  we  shall  have  much 
success  with  the  scattered  lectures,  obscure  and  soon  forgotten, 
that  at  present  are  being  multiplied  in  an  attempt  to  reach  the 
mothers  of  the  lower  classes. 

In  conclusion,  I  note  this  last  contribution  that  comes  to  us 
from  the  pediatrists: 

3.  "There  are  certain  maladies  that  cause  a  daily  and  very 
notable  loss  in  weight";  they  are  the  intestinal  maladies;  there 
may  be  an  average  loss  of  from  180  to  200  grams  a  day;  but  even 
in  cases  of  simple  loss  of  appetite  (dyspepsia)  the  weight  may 
decrease  by  about  35  grams  a  day.  But  when  a  child  suffering 
from  acute  febrile  intestinal  trouble  (cholera  infantum),  loses  a 
tenth  of  his  weight  in  twenty-four  hours,  the  illness  is  mortal. 

Now  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  educator  this  fact  ought  to 
be  of  serious  interest,  because  we  very  frequently  find  among  the 
recorded  details  of  sickly  children,  or  those  suffering  from  arrested 
or  retarded  development,  a  mention  of  some  intestinal  malady 
incurred  in  early  infancy. 

Still  one  further  observation:  Meunier  has  noted  a  fact  of 
extreme  importance:  that  while  children  are  passing  through  the 
period  of  incubation  of  an  infectious  disease,  and  before  they  show 
any  symptoms  likely  to  cause  a  suspicion  of  the  latent  illness,  they 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     177 

sustain  a  daily  loss  in  weight,  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  after 
exposure  to  contagion  until  the  appearance  of  decisive  symptoms. 
In  children  between  one  and  four  years  old,  the  daily  loss  is  about 
fifty  grams,  and  the  total  about  300;  but  such  a  loss  may  rise  as 
high  as  700  gr.  The  most  numerous  observations  were  taken  in 
cases  of  measles. 

Now,  there  is  no  need  of  explaining  the  prophylactic  impor- 
ance  of  observations  such  as  these!  A  child  who  for  a  period  of 
twenty  days  is  in  a  state  of  incubation,  is  called  upon  to  struggle, 
with  all  the  forces  of  immunity  that  his  organism  possesses,  against 
a  cause  of  disease  which  has  already  invaded  him ;  yet  no  external 
sign  betrays  this  state  of  physical  conflict.  Consequently,  the 
child's  organism  continues  to  sustain  the  customary  loss  of  energy 
due  to  the  activities  of  its  daily  life,  and  by  doing  so  lessens  its- 
own  powers  of  immunity.  To  prescribe  rest,  if  nothing  more, 
for  a  child  suspected  of  passing  through  the  period  of  incubation 
would  in  many  cases  mean  the  saving  of  a  life,  and  at  the  same 
time  would  protect  his  companions  from  infection,  which  is  com- 
municable even  during  the  period  of  incubation. 

In  our  biographic  records  of  defective  children,  which  include 
the  great  majority  of  the  weakly  ones,  we  find  in  many  cases  a 
characteristic  tendency  to  relapses  in  all  kinds  of  infective  diseases, 
from  which  they  regularly  recovered.  Such  organisms,  feeble 
by  predisposition,  yet  sufficiently  strong  to  recover  from  a  long 
series  of  illnesses,  were  exhausted  in  respect  to  those  biological  forces 
on  which  the  normal  growth  of  the  individual  depends,  by  this  sort 
of  internal  struggle  between  the  organic  tissues  and  the  invading 
microbes.  No  scheme  of  special  hygiene  for  children  of  this  type 
can  help  us,  either  in  the  home  or  at  school;  the  daily  variations 
in  weight,  on  the  contrary,  might  constitute  a  valuable  guide  for 
the  protection  of  such  feeble  organisms ;  at  the  first  signs  of  a  dimi- 
nution in  weight,  such  children  ought  to  be  subjected  to  absolute 
repose. 

The  use  of  the  weighing-machine,  both  at  home  and  in  school 
cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended.  In  America  the  pedagogic 
custom  has  already  been  established  of  recording  the  weight  of 
the  pupils  regularly  once  a  month;  but  instead  of  once  a  month, 
the  weight  ought  to  be  taken  every  day.  The  children  might  be 
taught  to  take  their  own  weight  by  means  of  self-registering  scales, 
and  to  compare  it  with  that  of  the  preceding  day,  thus  learning 


178  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

to  keep  watch  of  themselves:  and  this  would  constitute  both  a 
physical  exercise  and  an  exercise  in  practical  living. 

The  weight  may  be  considered  by  itself,  as  a  measurement  of 
the  body;  and  it  may  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  comparative 
mean  measurements  given  by  the  authorities;  just  as  it  may  also 
be  considered,  in  the  case  of  the  individual,  in  its  relation  to  the 
stature. 

a.  The  weight,  taken  by  itself,  is  not  a  homogeneous  or  rigor- 
ously scientific  measurement.  In  the  same  manner  as  the  stature, 
it  represents  a  sum  of  parts  differing  from  one  another,  the  differ- 
ence in  this  instance  being  that  of  specific  gravity.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  makes  a  great  difference  whether  a  large  proportion  of 
the  weight  of  an  individual  is  adipose  tissue,  or  brain,  or  striped 
muscles.  Each  of  the  various  organs  has  its  own  special  specific 
gravity,  as  appears  from  the  following  table: 

Specific  Gravity 


Tubular  bones  

1.93 

Spongy  bones           .                .                                                 

1.24 

Cartilage  

1.10 

f  from  .  . 

1.10 

Muscles  <  , 
to 

1.30 

Tendons  

1.16 

.    f  from.  . 

1.10 

Epidermis  <  , 
1  to  

1.19 

1  from 

1.28 

Hair<  , 
to.  . 

1.34 

Liver  

1.07 

Kidneys        .    .                                   .                                   

1.04 

Brain  

1.039 

Cerebrum  

1.036 

Cerebellum       

1.032 

Adipose  tissue  

0.97 

All  these  specific  gravities  are  low;  we  weigh  but  little  more 
than  water;  and  for  that  reason  it  is  easy  for  us  to  swim.  But 
because  of  the  difference  in  their  composition,  the  total  weight  of 
the  body  gives  us  no  idea  of  its  constituent  parts. 

Take  for  example  the  question  of  increase  in  weight.  We  can 
compare  the  mean  figures  given  by  the  authorities  with  the  ascer- 
tained weight  of  some  particular  child  of  a  given  age,  so  as  to  keep 
an  empirical  check  upon  the  normality  of  its  growth.  But  since 
we  know  that  an  individual  in  the  course  of  evolution  undergoes 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     179 


profound  alterations  in  the  volumetric  proportions  of  the  different 
organs  in  respect  to  one  another,  we  cannot  obtain  from  the  total 
weight  any  light  upon  this  extremely  important  alteration  in  pro- 
portions. Thus,  for  example,  Qu4telet  gives  the  following  figures 
of  increase  in  weight  for  the  two  sexes: 


Weight 

Weight 

Age 

Males 

Females 

Age 

Males 

Females 

9 

3.20 

2.91 

15 

46.41 

41.30 

1 

10.0 

9.30 

16 

53.39 

44.44 

2 

12.0 

11.40 

17 

57.40 

49.08 

3 

13.21 

12.45 

18 

61.26 

53.10 

4 

15.07 

14.18 

19 

63.32 

— 

5 

16.70 

15.50 

20 

65.0 

54.46 

6 

18.04 

16.74 

— 

— 

— 

7 

20.16 

18.45 

25 

68.29 

55.08 

8 

22.26 

19.82 

30 

68.90 

55.14 

9 

24.09 

22.44 

40 

68.81 

56.65 

10 

26.12 

24.24 

50 

67.45 

58.45 

11 

27.85 

26.25 

60 

65.50 

56.73 

12 

31.0 

30.54 

70 

63.03 

53.72 

13 

35.32 

34.65 

80 

61.22 

51.52 

14 

40.50 

38.10 

— 

— 

— 

INCREASE  IN  WEIGHT  OF  BODY 
ACCORDING  TO  SUTILS 


Age 

Weight  of  body 
in  grams 

Increase 

At  birth  

3000 

1  month  

3750 

750 

2  months                         

4450 

700 

3  months  

5100 

650 

4  months  

5700- 

600 

5  months  

6250 

550 

6  months  

6750 

500 

7  months  

7200 

450 

8  months  -.  

7600 

400 

9  months  .            

8000 

400 

10  months  

8350 

350 

11  months  

8700 

350 

12  months  

9000 

300 

180  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

But  these  figures  give  no  idea  of  the  laws  of  growth  that  govern 
each  separate  organ,  and  that  have  been  studied  by  Vierordt.  Ac- 
cording to  this  authority,  the  total  weight  of  the  body  increases 
nineteen-fold  from  birth  to  complete  development.  Certain  duct- 
less glands,  on  the  contrary,  diminish  in  weight  in  the  course  of 
growth;  the  thymus,  for  instance,  is  reduced  to  half  what  it  v/eighed 
originally. 

Furthermore,  the  various  organs  all  differ  in  such  varying  de- 
grees, as  compared  with  their  respective  weights  at  birth,  that  it 
facilitates  comparison  to  reduce  the  weight  of  each  separate  organ 
to  a  scale  of  1.  On  this  basis  we  find  that  when  complete  develop- 
ment is  attained,  the  eyes  weigh  1.7;  the  brain  3.7;  the  medulla 
oblongata  (spinal  marrow)  7;  the  liver  13;  the  heart  15;  the  spleen 
18;  the  intestines,  stomach  and  lungs  20;  the  skeleton  26;  the 
system  of  striped  muscles  48. 

And  these  widely  different  augmentations  are  not  uniform  in 
their  progress,  nor  is  the  complete  development  of  each  organ  at- 
tained at  the  same  epoch.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  brain  acquires 
one-half  its  final  weight  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  age;  the 
organs  of  vegetative  life  attain  half  their  weight  at  the  beginning 
of  the  period  preceding  puberty  (eleventh  year).  To  offset  the 
lack  of  indications  regarding  such  increases  in  weight,  we  have  a 
guide  in  the  morphology  of  growth,  which  reveals  how  differently 
the  various  parts  of  the  body  develop. 

However  empirical  it  may  be  from  an  analytical  point  of  view, 
the  datum  of  weight  is  a  valuable  index,  and  represents,  taken  by 
itself,  a  synthetic  anthropological  measure  of  prime  importance. 

It  obeys  certain  laws  of  growth  which  are  themselves  of  great 
interest ;  namely,  there  exist  two  periods  of  rapid  growth :  at  birth 
and  during  puberty;  while  at  various  periods  in  childhood,  between 
the  ages  of  three  and  nine,  there  are  alternations  of  greater  and 
lesser  growth  analogous  to  those  already  noted  in  relation  to 
stature. 

Accordingly,  the  weight  confirms  the  fact  that  the  organism  does 
not  proceed  uniformly  in  its  evolution,  but  passes  through  crises 
of  development  during  which  the  forces  of  the  organism  are  all  de- 
voted to  its  rapid  transformation;  such  periods  represent  epochs 
at  which  the  organism  is  more  predisposed  to  maladies,  more  sub- 
ject to  mortality  and  less  capable  of  performing  work  (compare 
the  observations  already  made  in  relation  to  stature). 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     181 

Index  of  Weight.  —  Accordingly,  weight  and  stature  stand  in  a 
certain  mutual  relationship,  but  the  correspondence  between 
them  is  not  perfect.  In  the  study  of  individual  physiological  de- 
velopment it  is  necessary  to  know  the  anthropological  relation  be- 
tween weight  and  stature;  in  other  words,  the  ponderal  index. 
Without  this,  we  cannot  get  a  true  idea  of  the  weight  of  an  in- 
dividual. For  instance,  if  two  persons  have  the  same  weight,  65 
kilograms  for  example,  and  one  of  them  has  a  stature  of  1.85  metres 
and  the  other  of  1.55  m.  ;  it  is  evident  that  the  first  of  these  two 
will  be  very  thin,  because  his  weight  is  insufficient,  while  the  second, 
on  the  contrary,  will  have  an  excessive  weight. 

A  stout,  robust  child  will  weigh  less,  in  an  absolute  sense,  than 
an  adult  man  who  is  extremely  thin  and  emaciated;  but  relatively 
to  the  mass  of  his  body,  he  will  weigh  more.  Now  this  relative 
weight  or  index  of  weight,  the  ponderal  index,  gives  us  precisely 
this  idea  of  relative  embonpoint,  of  the  more  or  less  flourishing 
state  of  nutrition  that  any  given  individual  is  enjoying.  Hence  it 
is  a  relation  of  great  physiological  importance,  especially  when  we 
are  dealing  with  children. 

The  calculation  of  the  ponderal  index  ought  to  be  analogous  to 
that  of  other  indexes;  what  has  to  be  found  is  its  relation  to  the 
stature  reduced  to  a  scale  of  100.  In  this  case,  however,  we  find 
ourselves  facing  a  mathematical  difficulty,  because  volumetric  meas- 
urements are  not  comparable  to  linear  measurements.  Conse- 
quently it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  measurement  of  weight  by 
extracting  its  cube  root,  and  to  establish  the  following  equation: 


St:  IOQ  :  X 

whence  Pi  = 


o 

The  application  of  this  formula  necessitates  a  troublesomely 
complicated  calculation,  which  it  would  be  impracticable  to  work 
out  in  the  case  of  a  large  number  of  subjects.  But  as  it  happens, 
tables  of  calculations  in  relation  to  the  ponderal  index  already  ex- 
ist, thanks  to  the  labours  of  Livi*  and  it  remains  only  to  consult 
them,  as  one  would  a  table  of  logarithms,  by  finding  the  figure  cor- 
responding to  the  required  stature,  as  indicated  above  in  the  hori- 
zontal line,  and  the  weight  as  indicated  in  the  vertical  column. 

Some  authors  have  thought  that  they  were  greatly  simplifying 

*Lm:  Antropometria. 


182 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


B 


the  relation  between  weight  and  stature  by  calculating  the  pro- 
portional weight  of  a  single  centimetre  of  stature  and  assuming 
that  they  had  thus  reduced  the  relation  itself  to  a  ratio  based 
upon  a  single  linear  measurement  (one  centimetre),  analogous  to 
the  ratio  established  by  the  reduction  of  the  total  stature  to  a  scale 
of  100.     But  evidently  such  a  calculation  is  based  upon  two  fun- 
damental errors,  namely :  first,  no  comparison  is  ever  possible  be- 
tween a  linear  measure  and  a  measure  of  volume;  and  secondly,  the 
relation  which  we  are  trying  to  determine  is  that  between  synthetic 
measurements,  i.e.,  measurements  of  the  whole,  and  not  of  parts. 
In  the  aforesaid  method  of  computing  (which  is  accepted  by 
such  weighty  authorities  as  Godin  and  Niceforo),  the  number  ex- 
pressing the  weight  in  grams  is  divided  by  the  stature 
expressed  in  centimetres,  and  the  quotient  gives  the 
average   weight    of   one   centimetre  of   stature  ex- 
pressed   in    grams.      This    method,    which  sounds 
plausible,  may  easily  be  proved  to  be  fallacious,  by 
the    following    illustration,    given   by   Livi   in   his 
treatise  already  cited  (Fig.  37).     The  two  rectangles 
A  and  B  represent  longitudinal  sections  of  two  cylin- 
ders, which  are  supposed  to  represent  respectively 
(in  A]  the  body  of  a  child  so  fat  that  he  is  as  broad 
as  he  is  long  (the  rectangle  A  is  very  nearly  square), 
and  (in  B}  that  of  a  man  of  tall  stature  and  so  ex- 
tremely thin  that  he  very  slightly  surpasses  the  child 
in  the  dimensions  of  width  and  thickness  (note  the 
length  and  narrowness  of  rectangle  B).     Evidently 
the  ponderal  index  of  A  is  very  high  and  that  of  B  is  very  low. 
But  if  we  calculate  the  proportional  weight  of  one  centimetre  of 
stature,  it  will  always  be  greater  in  the  man  than  in  the  child, 
and  consequently  we  obtain  a  relation  contrary  to  that  of  the 
ponderal  index. 

Let  us  make  still  another  counterproof  by  means  of  figures;  let 
us  take  an  adult  with  a  stature  of  1.70  metres  and  a  weight  of  19 
kilograms;  and  a  three-year-old  child  0.90  m.  tall  and  weighing  55 
kg.  (the  normal  weight  of  a  child  of  four).  In  the  case  of  the  adult 

one  centimetre  of  stature  will  weigh  -        -  grams  =  382   grams; 

while  one  centimetre  of  the  child's  height  will  weigh  -——=166 

yu 


FIG.   37. 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     183 


grams.  In  other  words,  one  average  centimetre  of  the  child's  stat- 
ure weighs  less  than  one  centimetre  of  the  adult,  as  it  naturally 
should,  while  the  ponderal  index  on  the  contrary  is  23.6  in  the  case 
of  the  adult,  and  27.4  in  that  of  the  child. 

The  reciprocal  relations  between  stature  and  weight  vary  from 
year  to  year.  In  babyhood,  the  child  is  so  plump  that  the  fat  forms 
the  familiar  dimpled  "  chubbiness, "  and  Bichat's  adipose  "fat-pads" 
give  the  characteristic  rotundity  to  the  childish  face ;  while  the  adult 
is  much  more  slender.  A  new-born  syphilitic  child  which,  with  a 
normal  length  of  50  centimetres,  weighed  only  two  kg. — and 
consequently  would  be  extremely  thin — would  have  the  same 
identical  ponderal  index  as  an  adult  who,  with  a  stature  of  1.65 
m.,  weighed  100  kg. 

The  evolution  of  the  ponderal  index  forms  a  very  essential  part 
in  the  transformations  of  growth;  and  it  shows  interesting  character- 
istics in  relation  to  the  different  epochs  in  the  life  of  the  individual. 

In  this  connection,  Livi  gives  the  following  figures,  for  males 
and  for  females;  from  which  it  appears  that  at  some  periods  of 
life  we  are  stouter,  and  at  others  more  slender;  and  that  men  and 
women  do  not  have  the  same  proportional  relation  between  mass 
and  stature. 


Indices 

Indices 

Age  in 

Males 

Females 

Age  in 

Males 

Females 

years 

years 

0 

29.7 

29.6 

15 

23.1 

23.4 

1 

30.9 

30.5 

16 

23.4 

23.6 

2 

28.7 

28.9 

17 

23.1 

23.7 

3 

27.5 

27.3 

18 

23.2 

24.1 

4 

26.5 

26.6 

19 

23.4 

24.1 

5 

25.8 

25.6 

20 

23.5 

24.1 

6 

25.1 

24.8 

— 

— 

— 

7 

24.4 

24.1 

25 

23.7 

24.1 

8 

24.0 

23.8 

30 

23.8 

24.1 

9 

23.5 

23.5 

40 

23.9 

24.7 

10 

23.1 

23.2 

50 

24.3 

25.3 

11 

22.8 

23.3 

60 

24.6 

25.3 

12 

23.1 

23.6 

70 

24.5 

24.9 

13 

23.4 

23.5 

80 

24.4 

24.7 

14 

23.1 

23.3 

— 

— 

— 

184 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


It  may  be  said  in  general,  so  far  as  regards  the  age,  that  the 
following  is  the  established  law  of  individual  evolution:  during  the 
first  year  the  ponderal  index  increases,  after  which  it  diminishes 
up  to  the  period  immediately  preceding  puberty  (eleventh  year 
for  males,  tenth  year  for  females),  the  period  at  which  boys  and 
girls  are  exceedingly  slender.  After  this,  throughout  the  entire 
period  of  puberty,  the  ponderal  index  seems  to  remain  remarkably 
constant,  oscillating  around  a  fixed  figure.  At  the  close  of  this  pe- 
riod (seventeenth  year  for  males,  fourteenth  for  females),  the  pon- 
deral index  resumes  its  upward  course  (corresponding  to  the  period 
in  which  the  transverse  dimensions  of  the  skeleton  increase,  and 
in  which  the  individual,  as  the  phrase  goes,  fills  out),  and  it  con- 
tinues to  rise  well  into  mature  life  (the  individual  takes  on  flesh)} 
until  in  old  age,  the  ponderal  index  begins  to  fall  again  (the  soft 
tissues  shrink,  the  cartilages  ossify,  the  whole  person  is  shrunken 
and  wasted.) 


0  t  2  J   4 


)    6   ?  8  9  /0  //  tf  /J  /4  /f  /<f  /?  tf  tf  J/&J9  <*M  fa 

'e 


FIG.  38. 


Women,  during  their  younger  years  are  on  a  par  with  men  in 
respect  to  the  ponderal  index,  but  in  later  life  surpass  them,  be- 
cause of  woman's  greater  tendency  toward  embonpoint,  since  she 
is  naturally  stouter  and  plumper  than  man,  who  is  correspondingly 
leaner  and  more  wiry. 

The  following  diagram  indicates  the  progressive  evolution  and 
involution  of  the  ponderal  index  throughout  the  successive  stages 
of  life: 

The  ponderal  index  has  revealed  certain  physiological  condi- 
tions in  pupils  that  are  extremely  interesting.  Some  authors  had 
already  noted  that  the  ponderal  index  was  higher  in  well-nourished 
children  (Binet,  Niceforo,  Montessori);  but  last  year  one  of  my 


CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GENERAL  BIOLOGY     185 


own  students,  Signorina  Massa,  in  a  noteworthy  study  of  children, 
all  taken  from  the  same  social  class  and  quite  poor,  and  who  did 
not  attend  the  school  refectory  or  have  the  advantage  of  any  other 
physiological  assistance,  established  the  fact  that  the  more  studious 
children,  the  prize  winners,  have  a  lower  ponderal  index  and  a  mus- 
cular force  inferior  to  that  of  the  non-studious  (negligent)  pupils. 
That  the  development  of  the  ponderal  index  stands  in  some  re- 
lation to  the  muscular .  force,  might  already  have  been  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  the  greatest  increase  of  weight  is  due,  in  the  evo- 
lution of  the  individual,  to  the  system  of  striped  muscles.  Studi- 
ous children,  accordingly,  are  sufferers  from  denutrition  through 
cerebral  consumption;  furthermore,  they  are  weakened  through- 
out their  whole  organism;  in  fact,  I  discovered,  in  the  course  of  re- 
searches made  among  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
Rome,  that  the  studious  children,  those  who  received  prizes,  had  a 
scantier  chest  measurement  than  the  non-studious.  This  goes  to 
prove  that  school  prizes  are  given  at  the  cost  of  a  useless  holo- 
caust of  the  physiological  forces  of  the  younger  generations! 

That  the  ponderal  index  has  an  eminently  physiological  sig- 
nificance, is  further  shown  by  the  following  comparative  figures 
between  normal  and  weak-minded  children.  The  stature,  which  is 
biologically  significant,  is  lower  in  the  weak-minded;  but  their  pon- 
deral index  is  greater  when  they  are  well  fed,  as  in  the  asylums  in 
Paris. 

Accordingly,  the  sole  cause  of  the  physical  inferiority  of  studi- 
ous children  is  study,  cerebral  fatigue. 

BIO-PHYSIOLOGICAL  DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  NORMAL  AND 
WEAK-MINDED  CHILDREN 

(SlMON    AND    MoNTESSORi:    BASED    ON    CHILDREN   FROM   9    TO    11) 


A  ™, 

Weight  in  kilograms 

Average  stature 

Ponderal  index 

Age 

Weak-minded 

Normal 

Weak-minded 

Normal 

Weak-minded 

Normal 

9 

21.0 

25.5 

1.15 

1.24 

24 

23.9 

10 

26.5 

28.5 

1.25 

1.30 

24 

23.6 

11 

27.0 

30.5 

1.25 

1.33 

24 

23.6 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  foregoing  table  the  normal  chil- 
dren include  both  the  studious  and  the  non-studious. 


CHAPTER  II 
CRANIOLOGY 

Having  finished  the  study  of  general  biological  questions  and 
of  the  body  considered  in  its  entirety,  we  may  now  pass  on  to  analyse 
its  separate  parts,  treating  in  connection  with  each  of  such  parts 
the  social  and  pedagogic  questions  which  may  pertain  to  it. 

The  parts  of  the  body  which  we  shall  take  under  consideration 
are :  the  head,  the  thorax,  the  pelvis  and  the  limbs. 

The  Head. — When  we  pass  from  the  body  as  a  whole  to  a  more 
particularised  study  of  the  separate  parts,  it  is  proper  to  begin 
with  the  head  because  it  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  whole 
body.  The  older  anthropology,  and  biological  and  criminal  anthro- 
pology as  well  were  very  largely  built  up  from  a  study  of  the  head; 
a  study  so  vast  and  important  that  it  has  come  to  constitute  a 
separate  branch  of  science:  craniology. 

The  fact  is  that  the  characteristics  manifested  by  the  cranium 
are  chiefly  in  the  nature  of  mutations  rather  than  variations,  and 
consequently  the  anthropological  data  relating  to  the  cranium 
correspond  more  directly  to  the  characteristics  of  the  species,  or  in 
the  case  of  man,  to  the  characteristics  of  race.  Hence  they  are  of 
special  interest  to  the  general  study  of  anthropology.  But  when 
these  mutative  characteristics,  which  are  naturally  constant  and 
have  a  purely  biological  origin,  undergo  alterations,  they  are  to  be 
explained,  not  as  variations,  but  as  pathological  deviations;  and  for 
this  reason  criminal  anthropology  has  drawn  a  very  large  part  of 
its  means  of  diagnosis  of  anomalies  and  of  degeneration  from  mal- 
formations of  the  cranium. 

Furthermore,  the  cranium  together  with  the  vertebral  column 
represents  not  only  the  characteristics  of  species,  but  also  those 
of  the  genus;  in  fact,  it  corresponds  to  the  cerebro-spinal  axis, 
which  is  the  least  variable  part  of  the  body  throughout  the  whole 
series  of  vertebrates;  just  as,  on  the  contrary,  the  limbs  represent 
the  most  variable  part.  Indeed,  if  we  study  separately  the  cranio- 
vertebral  system  and  the  limbs,  through  the  whole  series  of  verte- 
brates, we  shall  discover  gradual  alterations  in  the  former,  and 

186 


CRANIOLOGY  187 

sudden  wide  alterations  in  the  latter.  The  cerebro-spinal  axis 
(and  hence  the  cranio-vertebral  system)  shows  from  species  to 
species  certain  progressive  differences  that  suggest  the  idea  of 
a  gradual  sequence  of  modifications  (from  the  amphioxus  to  man) 
to  which  we  could  apply  the  principle,  Natura  non  facit  saltus: 
while  the  limbs  on  the  contrary,  even  though  they  preserve  cer- 
tain obvious  analogies  to  the  fundamental  anatomic  formation  of 
the  skeleton,  undergo  profound  modifications — being  reduced  in 
certain  reptiles  to  mere  rudimentary  organs,  developing  into  the 
wing  of  the  bird,  the  flying  membrane  of  the  bat,  and  the  hand 
of  man. 

Since  it  is  not  only  a  characteristic  of  species  and  race,  but 
of  genus  as  well,  the  cranium  constitutes  one  of  the  most  constant 
anatomical  features.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  less  subject  to 
variations  due  to  environment,  and  from  this  point  of  view  offers 
slight  interest  to  pedagogic  anthropology.  But  since  the  cranium 
contains  the  organ  on  which  the  psychic  manifestations  depend, 
we  have  a  deep  interest  in  knowing  its  human  characteristics, 
its  phases  of  development,  and  its  normal  limits. 

HEAD  AND  CRANIUM 

The  term  Head  is  applied  to  the  living  man;  the  Cranium,  from 
which  this  branch  of  science  takes  its  name,  is  the  skeleton  of  the 
head.  The  cranium  is  composed  of  two  parts,  which  may  be 
virtually  separated,  in  the  lateral  projection,  by  a  straight  line 
passing  through  the  external  orbital  apophysis  and  extending  to 
the  auricular  foramen,  thus  separating  the  facial  from  the  cerebral 
portion  of  the  cranium.  Hence  the  cranium  is  the  skeleton  of 
the  head  in  its  entirety,  and  is  divisible  into  the  cerebral  cranium 
and  the  facial  cranium. 

The  Cranium. — The  cranium  is  a  complex  union  of  a  number 
of  flat,  curved  bones  united  together  by  means  of  certain  very 
complicated  arborescent  sutures,  and  forming  a  hollow  osseous 
cavity  of  rounded  form.  I  will  briefly  indicate  the  bones  which 
form  its  external  contour.  On  the  anterior  part  is  the  frontal 
bone,  terminated  by  the  suture  which  unites  it  to  the  two  parietal 
bones:  the  coronal  suture;  while  the  two  parietal  bones  are  joined 
together  by  the  median  or  sagittal  suture,  which  forms  a  sort  of 
T  with  the  other  suture. 


188 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


On  the  posterior  side  is  the  occipital  bone,  which  is  also  joined  to 
the  two  parietal  bones,  by  means  of  the  occipital  or  lambdoidal 
suture.  Below  the  two  parietal  bones,  in  a  lateral  direction,  are 
the  two  temporal  bones;  and  between  the  temporal  and  parietal 
bones  are  situated  the  great  wings  of  the  sphenoid.  The  main 
body  of  the  sphenoid  is  at  the  base  of  the  cranium.  Besides  these 
there  is  another,  internal  bone,  the  ethmoid. 

The  Face. — The  skeleton  of  the  face  is  composed  of  fourteen 
bones;  some  of  these  are  external  and  lend  themselves  to  measure- 
ment; others  which  are  in- 
ternal and  hidden  con- 
tribute to  the  completion 
of  the  delicate  scaffolding 
of  this  most  important 
portion  of  the  skeleton. 
The  principal  bones  of  the 
face  are :  the  two  zygomatic 
bones  (articulating  with  the 
temporal,  frontal  and  max- 
illary bones) ;  the  two  nasal 
bones  (articulating  with  the 
frontal  and  with  the  as- 
cending branch  of  the 
,ddi-  maxillary,  and  uniting 

lion  to  this  the  sutures  are     abOVe    to    form    the    bridge 
shown  which  divide  the  frontal, 
parietal,  occipital  and  temporal  bones.     PD.  Coronal   Su-      of   the   nOSC  J   this     is   2o  bone 


ture;  DL.  Sagittal  Suture:  AL.  Lambdoidal  Suture. 


Q£ 


anthropology,  because  it  determines  the  naso-frontal  angle  and 
the  formation  of  the  nose);  the  two  upper  maxillary  bones, 
or  upper  jaw  (articulating  together  in  front  to  form  the  sub- 
nasal  region;  laterally  with  the  zygomatic  bones;  above  with 
the  nasal  bones;  internally  with  each  other,  to  form  the  palate, 
and  posteriorly  with  the  palatine  bones)  ;  the  mandible  or  lower 
jaw  (a  single  bone,  and  the  only  movable  bone  in  the  cranium), 
articulating  with  the  temporal  bones  by  means  of  a  condyle,  and 
the  separate  parts  of  which  are  distinguished  as  the  body  of  the  man- 
dible and  the  ascendant  branches,  which  are  united  to  the  cranium. 
The  bones  of  lesser  importance,  which  are  interior  and  hidden 
are:  the  two  lacrymal  bones  (situated  at  the  inner  angle  of  the 
orbitary  cavity),  the  vomer  or  osseous  septum  of  the  nose;  the  two 


CRANIOLOGY 


189 


bones  in  the  nose  which  lie  on  each  side  of  the  vomer  and  are 
known  as  the  turbinated  bones  (concha  nasalis) ;  and  the  two  palate 
bones  (which  form  the  backward  continuation  of  the  palatine 
vault  constituted  by  the  maxillary  bones). 

Human  Cranium  and  Animal  Cranium. — The  dividing  line 
between  the  cerebral  and  facial  cranium  is  of  great  importance  in 
anthropology,  because  the  relative  proportions  between  these  two 
parts  of  the  cranium  form  a  human  characteristic,  contrasting 
widely  with  the  animal  char- 
acteristics; and  they  offer  a 
simple  criterion  for  determin- 
ing the  higher  or  lower  type 
of  the  human  cranium. 
(Compare  in  this  connection 
Fig.  40,  skulls  of  the  higher 
mammals  and  of  man.) 

The  illustration  represents 
a  number  of  different  animal 
skulls;  and  at  the  top  are  two 
human  skulls,  the  one  of  an 
Australian  and  the  other  of  a 
European.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  proportions  between 
the  facial  and  cerebral  por- 
tions are  very  different;  in 
the  animals,  even  in  the 
higher  orders  such  as  the 
primates  (orang-utan,  gorilla, 
etc.),  the  facial  and  mastica- 
tory parts  predominate  over 
the  cerebral. 

One  might  even  say  that  the  skeleton  gives  us  at  a  glance  the 
characteristic  psychological  difference;  the  animal  eats,  man 
thinks;  that  is,  the  animal  is  destined  only  to  vegetate,  to  feed 
itself;  man  is  an  entirely  different  species;  he  has  a  very  different 
task  before  him;  he  is  the  creative  being,  who,  through  thought 
and  labour,  is  destined  to  subjugate  and  transform  the  world. 

There  are  still  other  characteristic  differences  between  the 
animal  and  the  human  skull.  The  cerebral  cranium  of  the  ape 
is  not  only  smaller  but  it  is  furnished  with  strong  bony  ridges,  to 


FIG.  40. 


13 


190  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

serve  as  points  of  attachment  for  powerful  muscles  intended  to 
protect  the  cranial  cavity.  The  human  skull  is  completely  devoid  of 
such  ridges;  it  is  perfectly  smooth,  with  delicate  contours;  it  might 
be  described  as  " frail  and  naked";  for  the  word  nakedness  pre- 
cisely expresses  the  absence  of  those  defences  with  which  the 
cranium  of  the  anthropoid  ape  is  so  abundantly  provided.  Accord- 
ingly, the  human  cranium  is  undefended  by  soft  tissues;  and  even  the 
bony  walls  themselves  are  far  from  thick.  If  we  take  a  transverse 
section  of  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  we  find  that  they  are  formed 
of  two  very  thin  layers  of  bone  united  by  a  porous,  osseous  sub- 
stance; the  external  layer  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  muscles 
of  the  scalp,  and  the  internal  layer  with  the  brain.  These  two 
layers  differ  widely  in  their  degree  of  elasticity :  the  external  layer  is 
so  elastic  that  if  it  receives  a  bruising  blow  (provided  this  is  not  so 
heavy  as  to  surpass  its  limits  of  elasticity)  it  will  yield  even  to  the 
point  of  touching  the  inner  layer  and  then  spring  back  to  its  origi- 
nal position  without  leaving  any  perceptible  trace  of  the  blow  re- 
ceived (this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  infants),*  while  the 
inner  layer  is  so  unelastic  as  to  appear  almost  as  brittle  as  glass:  so 
much  so,  for  example,  that  the  indirect  shock  of  the  same  contusion 
may  cause  it  to  splinter  into  fragments,  which  may  either  penetrate 
the  substance  of  the  brain,  or  produce  hemorrhages,  or  inflamma- 
tory reactions  in  the  meninges — and  sometimes  may  constitute 
the  sole  cause  of  epilepsy,  and  various  forms  of  inflammation  of  the 
brain  (even  resulting  in  idiocy),  and  sometimes  of  meningitis  and 
death. 

Contusions  on  the  heads  of  children,  and  in  general  blows 
resulting  from  falls  or  other  causes,  must  be  taken  into  serious 
consideration,  in  the  history  of  the  individual,  even  though  they 
have  left  no  profound  traces  externally. 

This  human  characteristic  of  nakedness,  of  the  absence  of 
powerful  bodily  defences,  is  not  limited  to  the  head  alone,  but  is 
diffused  over  the  entire  morphological  organism.  Man,  con- 
sidered as  an  animal,  is  weak ;  he  is  born  naked  and  he  remains  naked, 
and  destitute  of  those  natural  defences  which  explain  the  endur- 
ance and  the  survival  of  other  species;  neither  the  fur  nor  the  plum- 
age of  mammals  and  of  birds  nor  the  bony  shields  of  reptiles 
and  scales  of  fishes  serve  as  defences  for  this  vertebrate,  who  has 

*  See  the  application  to  pathological  surgery  of  this  anatomo-physiological  condition 
of  the  cranium,  as  given  by  Tillaux,  Anatomia  topografica. 


CRANIOLOGY  191 

raised  himself  to  the  highest  eminence  in  the  zoological  scale; 
neither  the  muscular  strength  and  powerful  teeth  of  the  felines, 
nor  the  talons  of  the  birds  of  prey  have  been  his  arms  of  conquest. 

Nevertheless,  man  who  has  conquered  the  earth  and  overcome 
all  his  powerful  biological  enemies,  owes  his  survival,  equally  with 
all  other  living  creatures,  to  his  victory  over  other  animals  and 
over  his  environment.  Wherein  lies  the  special  strength  of  this 
little,  feeble  being,  who  has  become  the  lord  of  the  earth?  It 
lies  in  his  brain.  The  arms  of  this  conqueror  are  wholly  psychic. 
It  is  his  intelligence  which  has  prevailed  over  the  might  of  other 
animals  and  enabled  him  to  acquire  the  means  of  adapting  him- 
self to  his  environment,  or  else  of  adapting  his  environment  to 
himself.  His  intelligence,  which  sufficed  him  as  a  weapon  with 
which  to  achieve  victory  in  the  struggle  for  existence,  is  also  the 
means  which  still  permits  him  to  continue  on  the  road  toward 
self-perfectionment. 

The  morphological  importance  attached  by  anthropologists 
to  the  cerebral  cranium  depends  precisely  upon  this:  that  it  is  the 
envelope  of  the  brain.  If  we  examine  the  interior  of  the  human 
cerebral  cranium,  we  find  that  it  has  adapted  its  bony  contours 
so  faithfully  to  those  of  the  soft  tissues  that  it  bears  the  imprint 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  brain  (cerebrum,  cerebellum),  the  con- 
volutions, and  even  the  blood-vessels  of  the  meninges.  Accord- 
ingly, a  study  of  the  cerebral  cranium  amounts  to  an  indirect 
study  of  the  brain  itself. 

Characteristics  of  the  Human  Cranium. — The  characteristics 
of  the  human  cranium  are  all  associated  with  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  volume  of  the  brain.  Let  us  assume  that  we  have  an 
elastic  vessel,  representing  in  form  an  animal  cranium,  open  at 
the  base  through  an  orifice  corresponding  to  the  occipital  foramen. 
If  we  inflate  this  vessel,  it  will  not  only  begin  to  enlarge  at  the 
expense  of  its  folds  (ridges),  and  to  stretch  and  distend  its  walls 
(thinness  and  fragility  of  the  cranial  bones);  but  furthermore  it 
will  undergo  a  change  in  form,  acquiring  a  more  pronounced 
rotundity  and  pushing  upward  in  its  anterior  part  above  the  face. 
This  part,  rising  erect  above  the  face,  and  determined  by  the  volume 
of  the  brain,  is  the  forehead.  Animals  do  not  have  an  erect  forehead ; 
their  orbits  continue  backward  in  an  almost  horizontal  line,  giving 
them  an  extremely  receding  brow.  Corresponding  to  this  prepon- 
derance of  the  cerebral  portion,  the  facial  portion  retires  below  the 


192  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

brow,  the  mandibles  do  not  extend  beyond  the  anterior  axis  of  the 
brain,  and  are  so  far  diminished  in  volume  that  they  assume,  as 
compared  with  animals,  a  new  function;  in  short,  the  mouth  is  no 
longer  merely  the  organ  of  mastication,  but  also  the  organ  of 
speech;  its  animal  part  has  been  spiritualised. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Forehead. — Inferior  Skull  Caps;  the  Skull 
of  the  Pithecanthropus;  the  Skull  of  the  Neanderthal  Man.  The 
forehead  is  so  distinctly  a  human  characteristic  that  mankind 
has  not  needed  the  help  of  anthropology  in  order  to  realise  its 
importance — and  as  a  sign  of  superiority,  nobility  or  sovereignty, 
has  placed  upon  the  forehead  the  crown  of  laurel,  or  the  crown  of 
nobility  or  kingship. 

Has  the  forehead  always  been  a  human  characteristic,  or  have 
we  acquired  it  little  by  little?  Such  a  problem  is  associated  with 
the  evolution  of  the  brain.  There  are  in  existence  certain  remains 
of  the  skeletons  of  primitive  men,  which  show  them  to  have 
possessed  a  cerebral  cranium  inferior  in  volume  to  that  now  attained 
by  the  human  species;  and  in  these  remains  the  forehead  is  also 
profoundly  different  from  that  of  to-day,  in  that  it  is  much  lower 
and  slants  backward,  while  the  supraorbital  arches  are  very  promi- 
nent. Such  is  the  evidence  of  the  "cranial  caps,"  discovered 
in  the  early  geological  strata. 

In  the  tertiary  strata  of  the  island  of  Java,  which  in  that  remote 
epoch  of  the  earth's  history  must,  together  with  Sumatra,  have 
formed  part  of  the  continent  of  Asia,  which  is  considered  as  the 
"laboratory  of  races,"  a  skull  was  found  by  Dubois  which  raised 
the  problem  whether  it  should  be  classed  as  that  of  an  ape  supe- 
rior to  those  now  existing,  or  of  a  primitive  man.  Prior  to  this 
discovery,  it  had  been  maintained  that  man  did  not  make  his 
appearance  until  the  quaternary  period.  This  supposed  primitive 
man  was  called  by  his  discoverer  the  Pithecanthropus,  pithecan- 
thropus erectus. 

Remains  that  are  unquestionably  human  occur  in  the  quater- 
nary period,  in  which  however  skeletons  are  very  rare,  as  compared 
with  relics  of  human  labour  or  social  life,  relics  which  are  found 
scattered  everywhere  throughout  Asia  and  Europe  as  well  (chipped 
flints).  The  various  remains  of  skeletons  show  us  skulls  much 
inferior  to  those  of  modern  man,  but  superior  to  that  of  the  pithe- 
canthropus. In  treatises  of  general  anthropology  reproductions 
are  given  of  human  crania  known  as  the  Spy  or  Neanderthal  type, 


CRANIOLOGY  193 

belonging  to  the  epoch  when  the  gigantic  mammoth  still  roamed 
the  earth.  The  forehead  is  very  low  and  receding  and  the  orbital 
arches  are  enormously  developed;  while  the  cerebral  capacity 
calculated  from  the  cranial  dimensions  is  inferior  to  that  of  mod- 
ern man. 

Consequently,  as  the  brain  increases  in  volume  in  the  course  of 
the  revolution  of  the  race,  the  cranium  not  only  shows  a  corre- 
sponding volumetric  increase,  but  at  the  same  time  alters  its  form, 
thus  producing  the  forehead  which  little  by  little  rises  from  a  re- 
ceding to  an  erect  position,  and  becomes  high  where  it  was  for- 
merly low,  while  at  the  same  time  the  prominent  orbital  arches 
disappear.  Accordingly,  we  may  consider  the  forehead  as  the  skele- 
tal index  of  the  cerebral  volume,  and  hence  of  the  relative  anthro- 
pological and  intellectual  superiority. 

In  addition  to  its  above-mentioned  value,  it  also  furnishes  us 
with  a  biological  principle  of  much  importance:  the  relation  be- 
tween the  volume  and  form  of  the  cranium. 

While  the  volume  has  a  significance  that  is  relative  to  the  mass 
of  the  body,  the  significance  of  the  form  is  absolute. 

Let  us  examine  these  two  skulls:  normal  human  skulls  of  our 
own  epoch ;  one  of  the  Celtic  race  (Fig.  46)  and  the  other  Sardinian 
(Fig.  43) ;  that  of  the  Celtic  race  is  much  larger  and  rounder;  that 
of  the  Sardinian  is  very  much  smaller  and  more  elongated. 

If  we  were  considering  only  the  volume,  we  might  say  that  it 
was  simply  a  case  of  a  microcephalic  and  a  macrocephalic:  two  terms 
(microcephaly  and  macrocephaly)  that  fall  within  the  province  of 
pathology.  On  the  contrary,  these  two  skulls  are  normal,  but  they 
belonged  to  individuals  characterized  by  differences  of  race;  the 
one  (small  skull)  having  a  low  stature;  the  other  (large  skull)  hav- 
ing a  tall  stature. 

The  volume  of  the  head  therefore  bears  a  relation  to  that  of  the 
body;  the  volume  has  a  relative  significance.  But  the  form  in  both 
of  them  reveals  a  state  of  normality;  the  two  skulls  have  a  high 
and  erect  forehead,  and  exhibit  in  their  whole  contour  a  fine  and 
regular  development.  Therefore  the  form  has  an  absolute  signi- 
ficance. It  even  proves  to  us  the  normality  of  the  volume,  a  fact 
which  could  not  be  determined  by  the  volume  alone. 

Another  mechanical  correspondence  between  volume  and  form 
is  disclosed  when  we  compare  the  skull  of  a  new-born  child  with 
that  of  an  adult.  The  skull  of  the  new-born  child  is  much  smaller 


194  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

in  volume;  but  the  form  shows  the  relatively  enormous  volumetric 
development  of  the  brain;  in  fact  the  skull  is  protuberant  and  the 
forehead  bulges  forward  above  the  face  (front  bombe),  while  cor- 
responding to  this  index  of  cerebral  development  is  the  enormous 
preponderance  of  the  cerebral  cranium  over  the  facial  cranium, 
which  is  so  small  as  to  be  almost  reduced  to  a  simple  rudiment. 

Hence  the  form  by  itself  alone  reveals  the  infantile  character 
of  the  cerebral  volume,  which,  in  relation  to  the  bulk  of  the  body 
is  of  far  greater  dimensions  than  in  the  adult.  In  fact,  if  a  child 
simply  increased  in  volume  and  its  growth  was  not  the  sum  total 
of  a  morphological  evolution,  the  adult  man  would  become  a  mon- 
ster; his  macrocephaly  would  be  so  exaggerated  that  his  neck  could 
not  sustain  the  weight  of  the  head  (If  the  relations  between  the  pro- 
portions in  infancy  were  maintained  through  life  the  adult  man 
would  have  a  head  with  a  perimeter  of  130  centimetres,  =  4ft.  3in.). 

Aside  from  its  mechanical  relations  to  the  volume,  the  form  has 
characteristics  dependent  upon  biological  factors,  such  as  the  sex 
and  the  race.  The  female  cranium  in  fact  has  a  straighter  forehead 
than  the  male  and  the  orbital  arches  are  absolutely  wanting,  while 
the  entire  surface  of  the  cranium  is  smoother  and  more  rounded. 

Similarly,  the  different  races  exhibit  forms  determined  by  bio- 
logical factors  and  not  by  mechanical  causes — for  instance,  the 
degree  of  dolichocephaly  (elongated  cranium)  and  of  brachyceph- 
aly  (short  cranium). 

Hence  the  form  is  life's  manifestation  not  only  of  the  character- 
istics proper  to  the  species,  but  also  of  the  mechanical  adaptations 
demanded  by  the  material  composing  the  body. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  volume  and  the  form  of  the  cranium  are 
dependent  upon  two  different  biological  potentialities:  the  volume 
is  mainly  determined  by  the  cerebral  mass;  the  form,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  mainly  determined  by  the  bony  structure — no  matter  how 
completely  form  and  volume  coincide  in  their  reciprocal  mechan- 
ical relations. 

That  is,  the  attainment  of  a  given  volume  of  head  depends  upon 
the  development  of  the  brain;  the  bone  follows  this  development 
passively,  is  the  index  of  it,  the  skeletal  representation  of  it,  but 
never  the  determining  factor. 

At  one  time  it  was  thought,  on  the  contrary,  that  a  precocious 
ossification  of  the  cranial  cavity  would  arrest  the  development  of 
the  brain;  microcephaly  was  believed  to  be  caused  by  a  precocious 


FIG.  41.  FIG.  42. 

Dividing  line  in  human  skull,  as  compared  with  that  of  gorilla. 


FIG.  43. — Rounded  ellipsoidal  cranium.  FIG.    44. — Brachycephalic    cranium 

(vertical  norm) 


FIG.  45. — Remains  of  spy  cranium.  FIG.  46. — Brachycephalic  cranium. 


FIG.  47. — Egyptian  cranium,  21st  dynasty,         FIG.    48. — Dolichocephalic    cranium, 
ovoid  type.  from  lateral  norm. 


CRANIOLOGY  195 

closing  of  the  sutures  of  the  cranial  bones;  and  there  was  a  certain 
period  when  the  surgical  treatment  of  microcephaly  consisted  in 
the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  cranial  bone,  in  order  to  allow  the 
brain  to  develop  freely. 

But  the  failure  of  such  attempts  afforded  additional  proof  of 
the  fact  that  the  volumetric  development  of  the  cranium  depends 
upon  the  brain  alone. 

If  a  precocious  or  abnormal  suture  occurs  in  the  cranial  bones, 
there  does  not  follow  an  arrest  of  development,  but  simply  a  mal- 
formation; which  is  precisely  in  proportion  to  the  potentiality  of  the 
brain,  which  grows  less  where  the  suture  has  been  formed,  and  in 
compensation  grows  more  than  normally  where  the  conditions  of 
the  bones  permit  of  cerebral  expansion;  and  a  deformity  results. 
Microcephaly  on  the  contrary  shows  inferiority  of  form  (smallness, 
receding  forehead,  etc.),  but  not  malformation. 

Anomaly  of  form,  therefore,  results  only  from  anomaly  of  skele- 
tal development,  and  is  frequently  found  in  conjunction  with  a 
normal  development  of  the  brain. 

Consequently  malformations  of  the  cranium  do  not  have  the 
grave  significance  of  biological  inferiority  or  of  degeneration  that 
they  were  at  one  time  believed  to  have;  but  frequently  they  must 
be  considered  in  connection  with  pathological  conditions  resulting 
for  the  most  part  in  delayed  development  in  the  embryo  or  in  early 
infancy,  producing  a  thickening  of  the  bone,  or  a  partial  suturation 
of  the  points,  or  parts,  or  of  the  entire  suture  (punctiform  synos- 
tosis,  partial  or  total) ;  sometimes  the  sutures  remain  unaltered,  and 
the  deformation  must  be  attributed  to  various  disturbances  con- 
nected with  the  nutrition  of  the  skeleton  in  the  course  of  intra- 
uterine  evolution  (hereditary  syphilis,  denutrition  of  the  mother 
during  pregnancy,  etc.).  In  short,  a  cranium  that  is  abnormal  in 
form  is  an  indication  of  pathological  occurrences  or  of  physio- 
logical errors  that  have  resulted  in  altering  the  normal  growth 
of  the  individual. 

There  are  many  anomalies  in  the  form  of  the  cranium,  but  here 
we  will  cite  only  the  two  principal  ones,  because  they  are  the  most 
frequent  and  most  likely  to  be  encountered  in  individuals  whose 
growth  has  been  retarded  (from  lack  of  nutrition)  and  conse- 
quently constitute  signs  of  physiological  inferiority  often  asso- 
ciated with  social  caste.  These  two  forms  are :  scaphocephaly  and 
plagiocephaly. 


196  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  scaphocephalic  cranium  (Figs.  51,  52),  is  characterised  by 
being  very  narrow  and  flattened  laterally;  while  the  forehead  and 
the  occiput  project  in  front  and  behind,  the  two  parietal  bones 
meet  above  almost  in  an  angle,  so  that,  if  it  were  turned  upside 
down,  the  vault  of  the  cranium  would  have  the  appearance  of  the 
hull  of  a  ship. 

The  plagiocephalic  cranium  is  a  cranium  which  is  unsymmetri- 
cal  in  respect  to  its  longitudinal  axis;  that  is,  it  is  not  equally 
developed  on  the  right  and  on  the  left. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  our  bilateral  symmetry  is  an  ideal  standard 
rather  than  an  absolutely  attainable  reality;  we  are  all  of  us  a 
little  larger  on  one  side  and  a  little  smaller  on  the  other,  but  to  so 
slight  a  degree  as  to  escape  superficial  observation,  so  that  in 
general  we  have  apparently  a  bilateral  symmetry — that  is,  we 
appear  to  be  symmetrical  according  to  the  testimony  of  our  senses; 
but  a  more  delicate  examination  proves  that  this  is  not  true. 
Plagiocephaly  therefore  represents  an  exaggerated  case  of  a  normal 
fact.  Plagiocephaly  may  be  simple  or  compound;  it  is  simple 
when  the  asymmetry  is  partial;  namely,  when  it  is  confined  to 
the  anterior  or  posterior  portion;  it  is  compound  when  it  is  total; 
and  in  such  case  we  find  a  complete  diagonal  correspondence:  for 
instance,  if  the  right  nodule  in  the  frontal  region  is  more  promi- 
nent, the  left  nodule  is  more  prominent  in  the  left  occipital  region, 
or  vice  versa.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  various  forms  of 
plagiocephaly  are  produced  by  asymmetry  of  the  nodules  or  of  the 
flattened  surfaces  of  the  cranium.  Even  in  the  case  of  microcephaly 
and  of  macrocephaly,  which  are  substantially  anomalies  of  volume, 
we  find  corresponding  characteristic  abnormalities  of  form.  The 
microcephalic  cranium  is  of  inferior  type,  suggesting  that  of  the  ape 
— in  other  words,  it  is  a  cranium  which  has  mechanically  adapted 
itself  to  a  brain  of  inferior  volume:  the  macrocephalic  cranium, 
especially  if  the  abnormality  is  due  to  rickets  or  to  hydrocephaly, 
calls  to  mind  the  infantile  type  of  cranium;  it  has  the  character- 
istic bulging  forehead,  while  mechanical  adaptation  frequently 
renders  it  very  round  (pathological  brachycephaly).  We  will 
take  up  this  question  again  when  we  come  to  speak  in  particular 
of  malformations  and  to  describe  the  technical  methods  of  cran- 
ioscopy.  What  more  particularly  concerns  us  now  is  a  considera- 
tion of  the  normal  form  of  the  cranium  and  its  morphological 
evolution. 


FIG.  49. — Cranium  of  new-born  child  (lat- 
eral norm). 


FIG.  50. — Cranium  of    new-born   child 
(vertical  norm). 


FIG.  51.  FIG.  52. 

Scaphocephalic  cranium. 


FIG.  53. — Cranium  of  new-born  child 
seen  from  above,  showing  polyhedric  con- 
tour due  to  nodules  of  ossification;  fonta- 
nelle  of  the  bregma;  and  suture  dividing 
the  two  frontal  bones. 


FIG.  54. — Ellipsoides  (classified  by  Sergi) . 


CRANIOLOGY  197 

The  Morphological  Evolution  of  the  Cranium  through  the 
Different  Periods  of  Life.  Embryogeny.  Order  of  Appearance  of 
the  Points  of  Ossification  and  of  Synostosis  of  the  Sutures. — In  its 
successive  transitions  through  the  different  periods  of  life,  the 
cranium  not  only  acquires  successively  greater  volume,  but  it 
assumes  forms  corresponding  to  the  different  grades  of  morpho- 
logical evolution.  We  may  group  its  transformation  under  five 
different  periods:  1.  from  conception  until  birth  (embryonic 
evolution);  2.  from  birth  until  the  end  of  the  third  year  (infan- 
tile evolution);  3.  from  three  years  old  until  twenty  (youthful 
evolution);  4.  from  twenty  to  forty  (adult  age);  5.  from  forty  to 
the  end  of  life  (involution). 

First  Period. — In  the  earliest  stages  of  intrauterine  life  the 
cranium  consists  of  a  membranous  skin,  enclosing  the  primitive 
cells  of  nerve  tissue  constituting  the  brain;  it  has  a  cartilaginous 

fafaneOe  of  &r*mi  /_ 

* *      (Frontal  F.) 


Fontanelle 
'of  Lambda. 


wile  of  Asferibn 
Wnlane/le  ofPterion 

(Sphenoid  £) 

Fio.   55. — Cranium  of  new-born  child.       Showing  nodules  and  fontanelles. 

basal  part,  destined  later  to  form  the  base  of  the  skull  (basioccipital 
and  basisphenoid  bones).  But  all  the  rest  (the  vault  or  cap  of  the 
cranium)  remains  in  a  membranous  state,  so  that  at  this  period 
the  head  of  the  embryo  has  not  yet  acquired  a  definite  form. 

In  the  second  month  of  intrauterine  life  the  phenomena  of 
ossification  have  already  begun  to  take  place;  that  is,  a  fine  net- 
work has  formed,  spreading  over  almost  the  entire  surface,  which 
proceeds  to  fill  up  its  interstices  with  calcareous  salts.  This  process, 


198  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

however,  is  more  rapid  and  more  intense  at  certain  points  (points 
of  ossification),  from  which  it  cannot  properly  be  said  that  the 
ossification  radiates,  but  rather  that  at  these  points  the  general 
process  is  intensified  and  concentrated.  There  are  five  principal 
points  of  ossification:  two  frontal,  two  parietal  and  one  occipital, 
which  appear  clearly  defined  and  projecting  like  nodules,  imparting 
to  the  cranium,  when  seen  from  above,  a  pentagonal  forrrl,  which 
is  the  normal  form  of  the  infant  cranium. 

Second  Period. — At  birth  the  cranium  has  not  yet  completed 
the  process  of  ossification,  nor  are  the  normal  number  of  bones 
that  will  eventually  compose  the  adult  cranium,  as  yet  definitely 
determined.  Therefore  the  cranium  of  the  new-born  child  has 
three  distinct  characteristics : 

1.  It  is  not  yet  uniformly  rounded,  but  polyhedral  because  of 
the  noticeable  prominence  of  the  five  primitive  nodules  or  centres 
of  ossification  (2  frontal,  2  parietal,  1  occipital,  Figs.  53,  55). 

2.  Since  the  process  of  ossification  of  the  bones  is  not  yet 
completed,   certain   membranous  portions  or  cranial  fontanelles 
still  remain,  which  are  especially  wide  at  the  points  where  several 
bones  meet.     The  principal  fontanelle  is  that  of  the  bregma  (at 
the  juncture  of  the  two  frontal  with  the  two  parietal  bones,  quad- 
rangular).    Next  comes  that  of  the  lambda,  which  is  much  smaller 
(juncture  of  the  two  parietal  bones  with  the  occipital,  triangular), 
and  lastly  the  fontanelles  of  the  asterion  and  the  pterion,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  temporal  bones,  the  former  being  situated  behind 
and  the  latter  in  front. 

3.  Since  the  process  of  ossification  is  incomplete,  the  fusion  of 
bony  portions  into  entire  bones,  such  as  they  are  destined  to  be 
when  complete  development  is  reached,  has  not  yet  been  accom- 
plished; that  is  to  say,  certain  bones  of  the  cranium  are  still  divided 
into  several  portions.     For  example,  the  frontal  bone  in  the  new- 
born child  is  composed  of  two  bones,  separated  by  a  longitudinal 
suture  that  is  destined  to  disappear,  and  the  occipital  bone  is 
composed  of  four  parts,  namely,  the  base,  the  squama  and  the 
two  condyles  (basioccipital,  exoccipital  and  superoccipital  bones). 

During  the  first  period  of  three  years,  while  the  brain  is  increas- 
ing notably  and  rapidly  in  volume,  the  cranium  undergoes  various 
and  interesting  transformations.  The  pentagonal  form  of  the 
cranium  tends  steadily  to  become  rounder,  because  the  primitive 
nodules  are  diminishing,  or  even  disappear,  although  in  this 


CRANIOLOGY 


199 


regard  many  individual  varieties  result;  and  the  processes  of  ossifi- 
cation reach  their  completion.  This  is  the  most  important  period 
of  growth,  during  which  the  individual  development  of  the  perfect 
cranial  form  may  be  attained,  provided  the  rhythm  of  growth 
between  the  brain  and  its  envelope  remains  harmonious;  or  again, 
certain  deformations  may  be  definitely  established,  owing  to  the 
intervention  of  some  pathological  condition  or  a  disturbance  of 
nutrition,  altering  either  the  internal  volume  or  the  normal  process 
of  ossification  of  the  bony  covering. 

The  first  closing  of  the  fontanelles  takes  place,  in  our  race,  in 
those  of  the  asterion  (posterior  to  the  temporal  bones),  and  next  in 
those  of  the  pterion;  and  it  some- 
times happens,  as  an  anomaly 
of  growth  that  leaves  no  ex- 
ternal trace  in  the  living  man, 
that  a  little  bone  is  formed, 
duplicating  the  shape  of  the 
fontanelle  itself;  such  little 
bones,  very  common  in  abnor- 
mal crania,  are  called  Wormian 
bones.  They  may  occur  in  con- 
nection with  any  of  the  fonta- 
nelles, but  especially  with  that 
of  the  bregma. 

The  fontanelle  of  the  lambda 
generally  closes  during  the  first 
year;  and  the  last  of  all  the 
fontanelles  to  close  is  the  largest,  which  is  situated  toward  the 
front  of  the  head,  at  the  bregma,  and  is  well  known,  even  by  the 
common  people,  and  can  easily  be  felt  upon  a  child's  head; 
it  generally  closes  toward  the  end  of  the  second  year;  and  its 
characteristics  may  furnish  valuable  indications  of  abnormality 
or  insufficiency  of  the  child's  development.  For  example,  if  it 
diminishes  and  disappears  ahead  of  time,  this  may  constitute 
the  first  symptom  of  microcephaly,  or  at  all  events,  of  sub- 
microcephaly  (i.e.,  a  case  of  microcephaly  that  is  not  very  pro- 
nounced). On  the  contrary,  when  this  fontanelle  remains  dilated 
and  delays  its  normal  closing,  this  is  a  sign  of  organic  weakness 
and  debilitating  disease  (cachexia,  rickets,  myxedema).  Further- 
more, the  fontanelle  in  question  may  alter  its  characteristic  ap- 


FIG.   56. — Cranium  of  adult  with  abnormal 
medio-frontal  suture. 


200  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

pearance  in  certain  forms  of  sickness.  In  the  case  of  hydrocephaly 
it  becomes  distended,  while  in  enteritis,  on  the  contrary,  in  which 
the  organism  parts  with  a  large  proportion  of  liquid,  it  becomes 
depressed. 

The  sutures  also  undergo  notable  changes  during  this  period  of 
life.  The  first  to  become  effaced  is  the  metopic  or  medio-frontal 
suture,  which  is  destined  to  close  and  form  a  single  bone;  by  the 
end  of  the  first  year  it  is  obliterated  throughout  the  middle  third 
of  its  length,  and  thereafter  the  process  of  suturation  spreads 
upward  and  downward  until  it  is  completed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year  (Welcker,  Haeckel,  Humphry).  •  Sometimes,  however, 
this  suture  is  not  obliterated  until  very  late,  and  there  are  anomal- 
ous cases  where  it  has  remained  throughout  life,  giving  the  fore- 
head a  characteristic  form  (pronounced  frontal  nodules  and  a 
slight  palpable  furrow  along  the  medial  line  of  the  forehead). 

During  this  same  time  a  fusion  has  also  taken  place  between  the 
occipital  squama  and  the  two  lateral  or  condyloid  portions;  but  the 
resultant  whole  still  remains  separated  from  the  corpus  or  base  of 
the  occipital  bone,  which  will  not  become  welded  into  one  solid 
piece  with  the  rest  before  the  age  of  seven  years. 

At  the  age  of  three,  the  ossification  of  the  cranial  vault  has  been 
completed.  In  place  of  being  depressed  and  protuberant,  as  it  was 
at  birth,  the  cranium  has  grown  upward  and  forward  in  the  frontal 
region,  assuming  an  almost  definitive  form;  the  volume  of  the 
cranium  has  at  the  same  time  undergone  an  exceedingly  rapid 
growth,  attaining  proportions  very  near  to  those  of  an  adult. 

From  the  age  of  three  onward  the  head  grows  slowly,  and  its 
transformations  are  much  slighter  and  fewer.  The  cranial  capac- 
ity which  at  birth  is  415  cubic  centimetres,  becomes  at  the  age  of 
three,  1,200,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  1,393,  and  in  the  adult,  1,400 
cu.  cm.  respectively.  Accordingly  we  might  say  that  at  the  age  of 
three  a  sort  of  repose  has  been  established  in  the  growth  both  of  the 
the  brain  and  of  the  cranium;  this  is  the  age  at  which  an  awakening 
begins  in  the  child  of  that  intelligence  which  is  to  put  him  in  touch 
with  the  external  world,  and  it  is  also  the  age  at  which  he  may  begin 
his  education  in  school. 

Third  Period. — There  follows  a  slow  and  parallel  growth  of  both 
brain  and  cranium.  The  ossification  of  the  cranium  itself  reaches 
completion.  At  the  age  of  seven  the  occipital  is  definitely  solidified 
into  a  single  bone  and  between  the  years  of  fifteen  and  twenty  the 


CRANIOLOGY  201 

body  of  the  sphenoid  also  becomes  welded  to  the  occiput.  This 
process  of  synostosis  begins  from  the  interior  of  the  cranium,  and 
only  subsequently  manifests  itself  externally.  Consequently,  the 
basilar  suture  closes  at  the  time  when  the  last  large  molars,  the  so- 
called  "  wisdom  teeth,"  appear.  After  this  period,  the  base  of  the 
cranium  can  no  longer  undergo  any  sort  of  growth,  and  in  the  case 
of  uneducated  persons  the  complete  development  of  the  cranium  is 
definitely  accomplished. 

Fourth  Period. — But  in  the  case  of  cultured  persons,  those  who 
form  the  class  of  brain-workers,  the  brain  continues  to  grow, 
although  extremely  slowly,  up  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  or  even 
forty,  thanks  to  the  sutures  which  still  remain  completely  intact 
and  which  still  make  an  expansion  of  the  bony  envelope  possible. 

After  this  comes  the  beginning  of  the 

Fifth  Period. — The  period  of  involution,  during  which  the 
synostosis  (closing)  of  all  the  cranial  sutures  will  successively  occur, 
until  in  advanced  old  age  the  cranium  becomes  composed  of  a 
single  bone,  just  as  in  the  embryo  it  was  formed  of  a  single 
membrane. 

The  synostoses  which  occurred  in  the  early  periods  had  an 
evolutive  significance  and  were  associated  with  the  growth  of  the 
body  and  the  intelligence.  These  later  synostoses,  on  the  contrary, 
have  an  involutive  significance  and  are  associated  with  the  physio- 
logical decay  of  the  organism  and  at  the  same  time  with  that  of  the 
psychic  activities. 

The  first  point  at  which  synostosis  takes  place  is  in  the  region  of 
the  obelion,  that  is,  near  the  middle  of  the  suture  which  unites  the 
two  parietal  bones;  shortly  afterward,  the  fronto-parietal  sutures 
begin  to  unite  along  the  pterion.  At  the  age  of  forty-five,  the 
obeliac  synostosis  has  progressed  as  far  as  the  lambda,  and  that  of 
the  fronto-parietal  suture  to  the  bregma;  and  at  fifty  the  ossifica- 
tion is  very  nearly  accomplished,  at  least  on  the  right-hand  side 
(according  to  Broca's  series  of  crania).  At  seventy  the  squama  of 
the  temporal  bone  unites  with  the  parietal,  and  at  eighty  the  entire 
cranium  has  become  a  single  bone. 

These  processes  are  subject  to  no  small  number  of  individual 
variations;  there  have  been  cases  of  persons  who,  although  very 
old,  still  preserved  many  of  their  cranial  sutures  intact  and  their 
psychic  activities  remained  correspondingly  alert  (men  of  genius). 
Conversely,  the  closing  of  the  sutures  sometimes  begins  as  early  as 


202  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  thirty-fifth  year.  A  diagnosis  of  age,  as  determined  by  the 
skeleton,  is  consequently  only  approximate. 

During  the  periods  of  growth  the  cranium  may  exhibit  transi- 
tory anomalies;  it  is  very  common  to  encounter  in  the  heads  of 
children  of  the  lower  social  classes,  who  are  consequently  subject 
to  denutrition,  malformations  which  represent  various  degrees  and 
forms  of  plagiocephaly,  and  which  subsequently  disappear  com- 
pletely, as  the  development  of  the  cranium  advances.  Anomalies  of 
form  must  therefore  be  judged  differently  in  the  case  of  the  child 
than  in  that  of  the  adult. 

It  may  even  happen  that  the  five  primitive  nodules  persist  for 
a  long  time  and  even  remain  as  a  definitive  form  of  the  adult 
cranium  constituting,  according  to  Sergi,  a  distinct  variety,  the 
pentagonal  cranium.  But  this  is  quite  rare.  From  the  frequency 
with  which  this  form  is  to  be  observed  in  schools  attended  by 
children  of  the  poorer  classes,  it  is  better  to  regard  it  as  due  to  a 
delay  in  morphological  evolution,  which  will  probably  disappear 
later  on. 

*  NORMAL  FORMS  OF  THE  CRANIUM 

We  are  indebted  to  Sergi  for  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  normal 
forms  of  the  cranium.  Such  forms  are  racial  characteristics  and 
are  invariable,  as  Sergi  has  succeeded  in  proving  by  a  comparison 
of  the  most  ancient  forms  of  the  cranium  with  recent  forms. 
Accordingly  this  authority  takes  the  cranial  formation  as  the  basis 
for  his  classification  of  races.  We  have  no  direct  interest,  so  far 
as  concerns  the  special  scope  of  our  own  science,  in  the  value  of 
this  theory  of  classification — a  theory,  by  the  way,  already  divined, 
although  very  imperfectly  and  under  a  different  form,  by  French 
and  German  anthropologists.  Sergi's  studies  of  cranial  forms 
interest  us  solely  as  a  diagnostic  test  of  normality  as  compared  with 
abnormality.  For  it  is  due  to  these  researches  that  certain  forms 
that  used  to  be  considered  pathological,  have  come  to  be  recognised 
as  normal. 

The  normal  forms  of  the  cranium  may  be  grouped,  according  to 
Sergi,  under  nine  primary  varieties,  each  of  which  includes  sub- 
varieties. 

These  nine  varieties  are  named  as  follows: 

I.  Ellipsoid;    II.  Ovoid;    III.  Pentagonoid;    IV.  Rhomboid; 


CRANIOLOGY 


203 


V.  Beloid;    VI.  Cuboid;    VII.  Sphenoid;    VIII.  Spheroid;    IX. 
Platycephalic. 

I.  Ellipsoid  (Fig.  58). — This  form  is  recognised  by  inspecting 
the  cranium  according  to 
the  vertical  norm  (see  in  the 
chapter  on  Technique  the 
method  of  cranioscopy). 

The  cranial  contour 
recalls  an  ellipse  in  which 
no  trace  of  the  nodules 
remains,  and  in  which  the 
occiput  is  not  in  the  least 
flattened;  while  the  ante- 
rior half  of  the  cranium 
closely  corresponds  to  the 
posterior  half. 

The  sub-varieties  are  differentiated  by  their  greater  breadth 
and  length,  by  the  form  and  protrusion  of  the  occiput,  and  also  by 
the  height  of  the  cranium  measured  vertically. 


Fio.  57. — Elliipsoides  depressus   cranium. 


Fio.   58. — Ellipsoid   cranium. 


Flo.   59. — Ovoid  cranium. 


Accordingly,  the  sub-varieties  have  a  binominal  nomenclature 
indicating,  in  addition  to  the  fundamental  characteristic  (variety) 
the  qualitative  characteristic  of  the  sub- variety  (e.g.,  ellipsoides 
depressus;  compare  Fig.  57,  showing  a  cranium  seen  laterally). 

II.  Ovoid. — This  form  of  cranium,  seen  from  above,  is  that  of 


204 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


an  ovoid,  with  the  broader  portion  corresponding  to  the  parietal 
bones,  at  the  point  where  the  characteristic  embryonal  nodules  are 
situated.  The  protrusions  of  the  parietal  bones  are  apparent 


FIG.  60. — Pentagonoid  cranium. 


V 

FIG.   61. — Rhomboid   cranium. 

(swellings)  but  not  angular  (nodules). 
The  occiput  protrudes  and  is  broad 
(Fig.  59). 

III.  Pentagonoid. — In  this  form, 
persistent  traces  of  the  five  primitive 
embryonal  nodules  are  still  plainly 
visible,    giving   the    contour  of  the 
cranium,   when  seen  vertically,  the 
appearance    of    a    pentagon.      The 
protuberances,    however,    are    quite 
smooth  and  not  pointed,  as  in  the 
embryonal  cranium. 

IV.  Rhomboid. — This  form  is  sim- 
ilar   to    the   pentagonoid,  excepting 

FIG.  62. — Beloid  cranium.  ' 

that   the  parietal  breadth  is  much 

more  notable  in  proportion  to  the  forehead,  which  is  much  nar- 
rowed and  has  lost  its  nodules. 


FIG.  63. — Ovoides  (classified  by  Sergi).  FIG.  64. — Pentagonoides  acutus  (Sergi's 

collection). 


FIG.  65. — Beloides  lybicus  (classified  by          FIG.     66. — Platycephalus    orbicularis 
Sergi).  (classified  by  Sergi) . 


FIG.  67. — Platycephalus  ovoidalis  (classi-       FIG.  68. — Spheroidal  cranium,  vertical 
fied  by  Sergi).  norm  (Sergi's  collection). 


CRANIOLOGY 


205 


FIG.  69. — Cuboid  cranium. 


V.  Beloid. — The  beloid,   or  arrow-head  cranium  is  like  the 
ovoid  with  the  occiput  more  flattened,  so  that  the  widest  portion' 
is  further  back  than  in  

the  ovoid;  toward  the 
front  it  becomes  nar- 
rower, constituting  al- 
together an  admirably 
shaped  type  of  head. 

VI.  Cuboid.— This 
form    is    most    clearly 
perceived      when     the 
cranium  is  seen  either 
sidewise    or    from    the 
rear.      Not    only    the 
face,  but  the  lateral  and 
occipital  walls  as  well 
are  flattened;  so  also  is 
the  forehead,  which  in 
general  is  quite  vertical. 

VII.  Sphenoid   (cu- 
neiform).— The  broadening  between  the   two  parietal  bones  is 
usually  far  back  and  very  evident,  while  the  cranium  narrows 

toward    the    front.      The 
occiput  is  flattened. 

VIII.  Spheroid. — Seen 
vertically,   it  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  very  broad 
ellipse;  all  the  curves  tend 
to  become  spherical.     The 
forehead,  however,  is  not 
notably  vertical. 

IX.  Platycephalic. — The 
fundamental  characteristic 
of  this  type  of  cranium  is 
that  it  is  flattened  on  top, 
or  rather,  since  such  flat- 
tening cannot  be  absolute, 

the  arch  of  its  vault  is  a  segment  of  a  circle  of  very  large  diameter 
(Sergi),  with  the  result  that  this  cranium  has  the  appearance  of 
being  very  low  vertically  and  very  broad  laterally.  When  seen 

14 


Fio.  70. — Sphenoid  cranium. 


206 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


vertically  it  may  present  a  wide  variety  of  contours,  ellipsoid, 
ovoid,  pentagonoid,  etc.,  but  its  distinguishing  characteristic  re- 
mains that  of  the  flattened  vault. 
Sub -varieties. — Sphenoides 
trapezoides,  or  trapezoid  cranium. 
Observed  from  the  vertical  norm, 
this  form  appears  as  a  variety 
of  the  sphenoid;  and  when  seen 
laterally  it  is  characterised  by 
the  lines  of  its  contour  forming 
a  trapezium.  Starting  from  the 
vertex  of  the  cranium  one  line 
slants  toward  the  forehead  and 
another  toward  the  occiput, 
which  is  very  massive.  In  the 
figure  given  below,  the  quad- 
rangle drawn  in  solid  lines 

FIQ.   71. — Spheroid  cranium. 

serves  to  indicate  the  correct 

position  of  the  cranium,  while  the  trapezium  formed  of  dotted 
lines  gives  us  its  characteristic  form. 

Among  the  forms  described  by  Sergi,  are  several  which  were 
formerly  held  to  be  ab- 
normal, such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  platycepha- 
lic cranium  and  the 
pentagonoid.  Similarly, 
when  the  surfaces  of  the 
cranium  showed  a  ten- 
dency toward  flatness,  or 
when  there  were  cranial 
protuberances,  even 
though  these  were  de- 
stined to  disappear,  they 
were  regarded  as  mal- 
formations. Before  this 
high  authority  offered  us 
his  guidance,  there  were 


FIQ.   72. — Trapezoid  cranium. 


certain  forms,  frequently 

encountered,    that    it    was    difficult    to    define,    for    example, 

the  trapezoid  cranium,  which  often  presents  a  notable  vertico- 


CRANIOLOGY  207 

occipital  flattening,  with  the  vertex  notably  higher  than  the 
forehead. 

There  are  also  certain  forms  of  cranium  having  the  frontal 
region  more  restricted  than  the  parietal  region,  or  slanting  down 
from  a  much  elevated  vertex,  which  have  been  proved  to  be 
normal  forms;  while  still  another  error  previously  made  was  that 
of  trying  to  judge  the  forehead  on  the  criterion  of  a  single  model, 
deviations  from  which  were  much  too  readily  relegated  to  the 
category  of  abnormalities.  The  most  regular  and  beautiful 
forms,  and  the  ones  that  are  commonest  in  our  racial  stocks  are 
the  ellipsoid,  ovoid  and  sphenoid.  In  my  work  on  the  women  of 
Latium,  precisely  one  of  the  points  that  I  noted  was  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  certain  sub-varieties  of  the  ellipsoid  and  the  sphenoid. 

In  order  to  recognise  the  forms  of  the  cranium,  a  certain  training 
is  necessary  which  each  one  must  acquire  for  himself.  Observa- 
tions of  the  cranium  will  make  it  easier  to  judge  of  the  form  in 
relation  to  the  head,  at  least,  when  the  latter  is  not  too  much 
hidden  by  the  hair,  as  often  happens  in  the  case  of  young  children. 

A  knowledge  of  the  normal  forms  of  the  cranium  will  also  guide 
us  in  our  judgment  of  many  abnormal  forms,  which  very  often 
present  the  appearance  of  exaggerations  of  normal  types. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  acrocephalic  cranium  (much  raised  in  the 
parieto-lambdoideal  region  and  sloping  forward  toward  the  brow, 
while  the  occipito-lambdoideal  region  is  flattened)  recalls  the 
trapezoid;  and  the  clinocephalic  cranium  (in  which  the  coronal 
suture  forms  a  slight  girdle-like  indenture  and  divides  the  contour 
of  the  cranium,  when  observed  along  the  vertical  norm,  in  two 
curves,  a  lesser  anterior  and  a  greater  posterior  curve,  resembling 
a  figure  of  8)  recalls  certain  varieties  of  ovoid  cranium  described 
by  Sergi.  This  brings  us  to  a  principle  that  is  very  interesting 
to  establish,  namely,  that  frequently  anomalies  represent  exaggera- 
tions of  the  racial  or  family  type. 

THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

Retzius  was  the  first  to  take  the  cranium  under  consideration  as 
a  basis  for  a  classification  of  the  human  races;  and  he  attempted 
to  determine  a  concept  of  its  form  by  means  of  a  numerical  formula 
expressing  the  relation  between  the  length  and  width  of  the  cranium 
(cephalic  index).  Thus  he  distinguished  the  races  into  brachy- 
cephalics,  or  those  having  a  short  head;  and  dolichocephalics,  or 


208  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

those  having  a  long  head.  Following  Retzius,  who  may  be  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  craniology,  Broca  adopted,  completed  and  ex- 
panded this  method,  deriving  from  the  cranium,  or  rather  from  the 
particular  character  given  by  the  cephalic  index,  a  key,  as  it  were, 
suited  to  unlocking  the  intricate  mysteries  of  hybridism  among  the 
human  races.  Consequently  the  cephalic  index  was  not  confined, 
as  regards  its  importance,  within  the  same  limits  as  all  the  other 
indexes,  but  was  raised  by  the  French  school,  warmly  seconded  by 
Italian  anthropologists,  to  the  dignity  of  a  fundamental  determinant 
of  the  ethnic  type,  as  definitely  as,  for  example,  the  vertebral  column 
serves  as  basis  for  a  classification  including  all  species  of  vertebrates. 
The  Germans  refused  to  accept  the  cephalic  index  as  determin- 
ing the  classification  of  races ;  but  while  seeking  to  prove  themselves 
independent  of  it,  they  continued  to  regard  the  form  of  the  cranium 
as  a  basis  of  classification  (Riitimeyer,  von  Holler,  and  to-day 
Virchow),  but  without  ever  having  identified,  as  Sergi  has  now  done, 
existing  forms  as  normal  types  of  race. 

The  cephalic  index  is  obtained  by  the  well-known  formula  ex- 
pressing the  relation  between  the  maximum  transverse  diameter  of 
the  skull  (see  "Technique  ")  and  the  maximum  longitudinal  diameter 

reduced  to  100,  and  is  expressed  as  follows:  Ci=   n     (the  cephalic 

index  is  equal  to  a  hundred  times  the  lesser  diameter  divided  by 
the  greater;  in  the  present  case  the  lesser  diameter  is  the  transverse). 

This  proportion  between  linear  measurements  cannot  properly 
sum  up  the  form  of  the  cranium.  We  can,  for  example,  conceive  of  a 
microcephalic  cranium  having  a  normal  cephalic  index,  since  the 
relation  between  the  two  maximum  diameters  necessary  for  deduc- 
ing the  index,  does  not  tell  us,  for  example,  either  the  dimension  of 
the  cranium  or  the  form  of  the  forehead. 

If,  for  instance,  we  should  imagine  a  photograph  of  a  cranium 
enlarged  a  hundred  diameters,  the  reciprocal  relations  between  the 
length  and  the  width  would  still  remain  unchanged. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  that  the  cephalic  index  does  not  deter- 
mine the  form  of  the  cranium,  Sergi  makes  use  of  a  number  of 
different  geometric  figures,  such  as  a  triangle,  an  ellipse,  a  trapezoid 
inscribed  within  equal  rectangles,  and  which  consequently  have  an 
equal  base  and  equal  altitude,  that  is,  the  same  proportion  between 
length  and  width. 

It  follows  that  skulls  corresponding  more  or  less  closely  in  shape, 


CRANIOLOGY  209 

trapezoidal,  trigonocephalic,  ellipsoidal,  plagiocephalic,  and  hence 
both  normal  and  abnormal,  can  be  expressed  by  a  cephalic  index 
having  the  same  identical  figures. 

But,  although  the  cephalic  index  is  far  from  being  descriptive  in 
regard  to  the  form  of  the  cranium,  it  constitutes  an  anthropological 
datum  that  has  two  advantages:  1.  It  depends  upon  measure- 
ments and  is  therefore  accessible  to  those  who,  not  being  anthro- 
pologists, lack  the  trained  eye  that  can  distinguish  with  careful 
accuracy  the  true  forms  of  the  cranium  in  their  manifold  variety. 
Furthermore,  since  the  measurement  of  maximum  diameters  is 
sure  and  easy  and  may  be  obtained  with  exactness,  regardless  of 
the  thickness  of  the  hair,  it  may  be  applied  in  anthropological  re- 
search to  all  subjects.  2.  The  cephalic  index,  even  if  it  does  not 
give  us  the  form,  does  give  us  a  fact  which  has  a  bearing  upon  the 
form,  namely,  whether  the  cranium  is  long  or  short ;  in  other  words, 
it  substantially  represents  the  most  real  and  evident  difference 
between  the  different  types  of  cranium.  And  since  the  cranium 
has  a  visibly  spheroid  form,  that  is,  with  smooth  and  rounding 
surfaces,  and  constantly  adheres  to  this  generic  delineation,  the 
fact  of  being  longer  or  shorter  introduces  a  definite  differentiation 
into  the  general  and  accepted  form,  and  gives  a  very  simple  and 
concise  indication  of  it,  that  conveys  the  idea  more  clearly  than  a 
description  would. 

Granting  the  practicality  of  this  line  of  research,  the  cephalic 
index  may  also  be  accepted  as  an  index  of  form,  so  long  as  there 
is  no  intention  of  going  deeply  into  minute  differentiations  for 
systematic  purposes.  Professor  Sergi  himself,  author  of  the 
system  that  forms  the  basis  of  the  study  of  cranial  forms,  urged 
me  to  exclude  from  a  practical  course  in  pedagogic  anthropology 
the  classification  of  forms,  limiting  the  concept  of  form  to  that 
included  in  the  cephalic  index. 

The  cephalic  index  has  the  additional  advantage  of  having 
been  extensively  studied  and  consequently  of  having  an  abundance 
of  mean  averages  for  comparison  that  are  of  great  practical  use. 
Furthermore,  the  idea  it  gives  regarding  the  cranium  by  means 
of  one  simple  figure  serves  to  convey  certain  fundamental  prin- 
ciples with  great  clearness. 

In  dealing  with  figures  that  determine  an  anthropological 
datum  of  such  high  importance,  it  is  necessary  to  define  its  limits 
and  its  nomenclature. 


210 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Various  authors  have  introduced  their  own  personal  classifica- 
tion of  the  cephalic  index,  and  no  small  confusion  in  nomenclature 
has  resulted;  so  much  so  that  a  need  was  felt  of  establishing  a 
uniformity  of  numerical  limits  and  of  the  relative  terminology, 
in  other  words,  of  simplifying  the  scientific  language. 

Accordingly,  a  congress  was  held  at  Frankfort  in  1885,  at 
which  the  following  nomenclature  was  established  by  international 
agreement : 

CEPHALIC  INDEX.— Nomenclature  established  at  Frankfort 
Dolichocephalia  =  75  and  below 
Mesaticephalia=from  75.1  to  79.9 
Brachycephalia=from  80  to  85 
Hyperbrachycephalia=85.1  and  above. 

Previous  to  this,  the  most  widely  varied  classifications  were  in 
use,  and  the  leading  authorities  had  all  introduced  into  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  their  own  personal  classifications.  Here  are 
some  of  the  more  important : 


BROCA: 


RANKE  : 


KOLLMAN  : 


RETZIUS  and 
DAVIS  : 


TOPINARD: 


Dolichocephalics  =  75  and  below 
Subdolichocephalics=from  75  to  80 
Subbrachycephalics=from  80  to  83.3 
Brachycephalics=83.3  and  above. 

Dolichocephalics  =  74.9 
Mesaticephalics=from  75  to  79.9 
Brachycephalics  =  80  and  above. 

Dolichocephalics  =  73. 9  and  below 
Mesaticephalics=from  74  to  79.9 
Brachycephalics  =from  80  to  86.9 
Hy per brachy cephalics  =  87  and  above. 


Dolichocephalia  =  79  and  below 
Brachycephalia  =  80  and  above. 

64      and  below  =  Ultradolichocephalics. 


Dolichocephalics 


True  dolichocephalics. 


Subdolichocephalics. 


CRANIOLOGY 


211 


Mesaticephalics 


75 


True  mesaticephalics. 


__   / 

77  (Mean  average.) 

78  1 

Q   /  Submesaticephalics. 

79  I 


Brachycephalics 


80 
81 

82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 


Subbrachycephalics. 


True  brachycephalics. 


and  above  =  Ultrabrachycephalics. 


It  remains  to  determine  the  extreme  limits  of  oscillation  of  the 
index,  both  in  relation  to  the  normal  mean  and  in  relation  to  the 
fluctuations  of  this  important  ethnic  datum  in  a  given  population. 

Topinard,  as  we  have  seen,  gives  as  his  mean  figures  for  the 
extreme  normal  limits  among  the  human  races  64  and  90. 

Deniker  gives,  as  his  mean  averages  for  the  human  races, 
the  following  figures:  For  dolichocephaly,  69.4  (natives  of  the 
Caroline  Islands;  Australia);  For  brachycephaly,  88.7  (the  Ayssori 
of  the  Transcaucasus;  Asia).*  But  we  know  that  a  mean  is 
obtained  from  figures  either  greater  or  smaller  than  the  mean 
itself,  so  that  the  limits  of  individual  variation  must  exceed  that 
of  the  given  figures. 

Accordingly  the  oscillation  of  the  normal  cephalic  indices 
may  be  given  as  ranging  from  70  to  90. 

In  regard  to  abnormalities  (extreme  human  limits  of  the  cephalic 
index)  the  authorities  give  58  for  dolichocephaly  (scapho-cephaly) 
and  100  for  brachycephaly  (in  which  case  the  cranium  is  round 
and  known  as  trochocephalic;  it  is  met  with  among  the  insane). 

Between  oscillations  of  such  extremely  wide  range  in  the  normal 
cephalic  index,  the  number  chosen  as  a  medial  figure  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  dividing  the  dolichocephalics  from  the  brachy- 
cephalics is  that  of  80,  which  is  included  within  the  division  of 
brachycephaly.  In  spite  of  the  nomenclature  established  at 
Frankfort,  there  is  a  distinct  scholastic  advantage,  because  of  the 
greater  simplicity  of  memorising  and  fixing  the  idea,  in  reverting 

*  Broca  gives,  not  as  mean  averages,  but  as  extreme  limits,  70.9  for  dolichocephalics 
(Tasmanians)  and  90  for  brachycephalics  (natives  of  the  Sandwich  Islands). 


212  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

to  the  nomenclature  of  Retzius,  who  classes  as  brachycephalics 
all  crania  from  80  upward,  and  as  dolichocephalics  all  those 
below  80.  It  is  certainly  strange  to  class  all  crania  from  80  to  90 
without  distinction  as  brachycephalics,  and  then  to  alter  the 
name  and  call  a  cranium  with  an  index  of  79.9  a  dolichocephalic. 
It  has  been  found  that  there  is  always  a  slight  difference  between 
the  index  taken  from  measurements  of  the  cranium  and  that 
obtained  from  measurements  of  the  head.  According  to  Broca, 
it  is  necessary  to  subtract  two  units  from  the  cephalic  index  taken 
from  a  living  person,  in  order  to  obtain  that  of  the  cranium;  thus, 
for  example,  if  the  cephalic  index  (taken  from  life)  is  80,  the 
cranial  index  (taken  from  the  skeleton)  would  be  78.  Such 
differences  are  due  to  the  disposition  of  the  soft  tissues.  Con- 
sequently, even  according  to  the  simple  subdivision  of  Retzius, 
a  person  who  was  brachycephalic  during  life,  would  become 
dolichocephalic  after  he  was  dead. 

But  this  is  what  always  happens  in  biology,  whenever  we  try  to 
establish  definite  limits.  Life  undergoes  an  insensible  transition 
through  successive  limits  and  forms,  and  this  fact  constitutes  the 
grave  difficulties  and  the  apparent  confusion  of  biological  systems. 
In  determining  degrees  of  difference,  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse 
constantly  to  special  methods,  which  teach  us  to  recognise  general 
properties  and  to  use  them  as  a  basis  in  dividing  living  creatures 
into  separate  groups  (see  in  the  section  on  Method,  "Mean  measure- 
ments and  formation  of  series  in  relation  to  individual  variations"). 

Hence,  for  mnemonic  purposes,  we  need  remember  only  the 
single  number,  80. 

But  if  we  wish  to  adopt  the  nomenclature  of  Frankfort,  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  in  rnind  two  figures  denoting  limits,  75  (inclusive) 
for  dolichocephaly,  and  80  (inclusive)  for  brachycephaly. 

75  B  80 


85 


o  tr  o 

tr  £  CT* 

9  Si  ^ 

f>  o 

If 

P  P 


These  constitute,  as  it  were,  two  centres,  beyond  which,  on  this 
side  and  on  that,  we  may  picture  to  ourselves  the  individual  varia- 
tions drawn  up  in  martial  line.  In  this  case,  the  space  between  75 


CRANIOLOGY 


213 


and  80,  in  other  words,  the  limits  of  mesaticephaly,  may  be  inter- 
preted as  due  to  oscillations  between  dolicho-  and  brachycephaly 
according  to  the  laws  of  variability,  which  is  analogous  to  what 
takes  place  in  the  case  of  oscillations  in  the  opposite  direction  (70- 
75  dolichocephaly;  80-85  brachycephaly).  From  this  point  of 
view,  these  two  numbers,  75  and  80,  constitute  median  centres  of 
two  different  types. 

But  according  to  Broca  and  his  school — and  this  view  is 
accepted  by  many  anthropologists — mesaticephaly  should  be  re- 
garded as  constituting  a  fusion  of  the  two  other  types,  the  brachy- 
and  dolichocephalic,  whence 
it  follows  that  mesaticephalics 
would  be  hybrids.  Other 
authorities,  on  the  contrary, 
exaggerating  the  conception 
of  the  fixity  of  the  cephalic 
index  in  a  given  race,  admit 
the  existence  of  mesaticeph- 
alic  races. 

But  it  has  been  observed 
that  the  greater  number  of 
mesaticephalics  are  to  be 
found  in  regions  where  doli- 
chocephaly prevails;  in  cer- 
tain districts  of  Africa,  as  for 
example,  in  Somaliland,  not  a 
single  brachy cephalic  exists, 
yet  none  the  less  the  mesati- 
cephalics are  numerous.  Ac- 
cordingly, mesaticephaly  may 
be  classed  with  dolichocephaly 
and  regarded  as  one  of  its  variations,  while  it  seems  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  brachycephaly.  Therefore  the  nomenclature  of 
Retzius  may  for  many  good  reasons  be  chosen  and  adopted  in 
our  schools.  In  conclusion,  we  shall  regard  the  brachycephalics 
and  dolichocephalics  as  the  two  fundamental  types;  and  shall 
adopt  the  figure  80,  included  among  the  brachycephalics,  as  the 
limit  of  separation.  The  different  grades  of  dolicho-  or  brachy- 
cephaly are  to  be  determined  by  mean  averages,  and  the  oscillations 
due  to  individual  variations,  by  series. 


85""°          85-83 


83-6?        81-79       79  ®A 


FIG.  73. 


214  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Hence  it  is  important  to  determine  the  mean  average  and  the 
oscillation  of  the  cephalic  index  for  the  different  races ;  and  this  is  of 
interest  to  us  as  educators,  in  order  to  establish  the  limits  of 
normality. 

The  practical  method  of  studying  the  cephalic  index  is  accord- 
ing to  geographical  distribution. 

Here  are  a  few  general  data  of  the  cephalic  index  relative  to  its 
distribution : 

The  most  dolichocephalic  of  all  peoples  are  found  in  Melanesia, 
Australia,  India  and  Africa.  In  the  Fiji  Islands  the  mean  cephalic 
index  is  67;  in  the  Caroline  Archipelago  it  is  69;  in  various  regions 
of  India,  71 ;  that  of  the  Hottentots,  74 ;  of  the  Bantus,  73.  Belong- 
ing to  the  dolichocephalics  or  mesaticephalics  are  the  populations 
of  the  extreme  south  of  Europe  (Mediterranean  race)  and  at  the 
extreme  north  (English,  Scotch).  On  the  contrary,  the  races  of 
western  Europe  and  of  central  Asia  are  brachycephalic  (Celts, 
Mongols).  The  most  brachycephalic  of  all  these  peoples  are  met 
with  in  the  Transcaucasus;  their  mean  average  is  88.7.  There  also 
exists  a  notable  brachycephalic  type  in  France  (Savoyards,  86.9; 
inhabitants  of  the  upper  Loire,  87.4) ;  also  in  Dalmatia,  80,  while 
the  Lapps  of  Scandinavia  are  also  ultrabrachycephalic,  87.4 

On  very  general  lines,  it  may  be  said  that  the  dolichocephalics 
are  the  Eurafrican  races  (including  the  Mediterranean  race,  with 
which  the  first  civilisations  are  associated:  Egyptian,  Greek  and 
Roman)  who  migrated  from  the  Mediterranean  basin  into  Europe; 
and  the  brachycephalics  are  the  Eurasian  races,  who  on  the  con- 
trary migrated  from  continental  Asia  across  western  Europe  (the 
Aryans) . 

As  far  as  regards  Italy,  its  population  is  by  no  means  evenly 
constituted.  The  median  index  given  by  Livi  for  Italy,  deduced 
from  observation  of  more  than  29,000  subjects  is  80;  in  regard  to 
regional  distribution,  the  results  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Piedmont 85 . 9 

Emilia 85.2 

Venetia 85.0 

Lombardy 84 . 4 

Umbria 84 . 1 

Marches 84 . 0 

Liguria 82.3 

Tuscany 82 . 3 

Campania 82 . 1 

Abruzzo  and  Molise. .  .  81.9 


CRANIOLOGY  215 

Latium 81.0 

Basilicata. ; 80.8 

Apulia....  .* 79.8 

Sicily 79.6 

Calabria 78.4 

Sardinia 77 . 5 

Let  us  remember  that  if  the  cephalic  index  were  measured 
directly  from  the  cranium,  the  result  would  be  one  or  two  units 
less,  hence  the  mean  average  of  the  cranial  index  would  be  about  78. 
The  accompanying  map  represents  still  more  clearly  the 
geographical  distribution.  The  results  show  that  in  Piedmont,  in 
Emilia,  and  in  Northern  Italy  in  general  the  inhabitants  are  more 
brachycephalic;  while  in  the  south  and  more  especially  in  the  island 
possessions  we  find  the  more  dolichocephalic  part  of  the  population. 
The  highest  degree  of  dolichocephaly  is  found  in  Sardinia. 

But  if,  instead  of  the  cartographic  summary  herewith  repro- 
duced, we  could  examine  the  exhaustive  one  with  which  Livi  has 
illustrated  his  great  work  on  Anthropometry,  we  should  discover 
that  the  distribution  does  not  follow  the  great  regional  lines; 
but  that  as  a  matter  of  fact  certain  human  groups  exist,  isolated 
like  little  islands,  which  have  a  cephalic  index  in  marked  contrast 
to  that  of  the  remaining  population  of  the  same  region. 

Thus,  for  example,  at  Lucca,  in  the  midst  of  a  brachycephalic 
population,  there  is  a  pronouncedly  dolichocephalic  group;  and 
in  the  midst  of  the  dolichocephalic  population  of  Abruzzo  and  the 
neighbouring  provinces,  there  exists  at  Chieti  a  strongly  brachy- 
cephalic group.  Besides  these  and  similar  groups  contrasting 
with  the  regional  type,  there  exist  a  multiplicity  of  differences, 
from  one  successive  boundary  line  to  another,  so  that  the  limits 
of  the  cephalic  index  may  be  determined  with  great  minuteness 
in  the  various  regions. 

Livi's  large  charts  lend  themselves  with  great  clearness  to 
this  sort  of  analytical  study,  which  would  be  found  to  be  very 
profitable  to  teachers. 

It  is  also  quite  instructive  to  compare  the  different  charts 
representing  various  anthropological  data  of  ethnical  importance; 
such,  for  example,  as  that  of  the  distribution  of  stature  and  that 
of  the  distribution  of  pigmentation.  These  data  are  regarded  by 
anthropologists  as  attributes  of  race.  Well,  in  these  three  charts 
it  is  evident  at  the  first  glance  that  there  is  a  notable  resemblance 
in  distribution,  so  much  so  than  an  eye  untrained  to  observation 


216 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


would  be  likely  to  confuse  them.  The  cephalic  index,  the  stature, 
the  colour  of  the  skin  are  consequently  of  almost  uniform  distribu- 
tion. Corresponding  to  the  most  pronounced  brachycephaly,  we 
have  the  tallest  stature  and  the  fairest  complexion;  corresponding 
to  the  most  pronounced  dolichocephaly,  we  find  instead  the  lowest 
stature  and  the  most  brunette  types.  Such  an  accumulative 
coincidence,  in  certain  communities,  of  characteristics,  in  contrast 
to  those  that  are  found  combined  in  certain  other  communities, 
reveal  the  existence  in  Italy  of  two  different  races.  One  of  these 
races  seems  to  have  descended  from  over  the  Alps;  the  other,  to 
have  landed  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  first 
belong  to  the  Eurasians;  the  second  to  the  Euiafricans. 

In  my  work  upon  the  population  of  Latium,  the  mean  cephalic 
index  obtained  by  me  is  78.  The  distribution  according  to  the 
localities  studied  affords  the  mean  averages  noted  in  the  following 
table,  in  which  I  have  also  recorded  the  maximums  and  minimums, 
and  the  percentage  of  brachycephalic  and  dolichocephalic  individ- 
uals who  contributed  to  the  given  means : 

CEPHALIC  INDEX  AMONG  THE  PEOPLE  OF  LATIUM 
(ACCORDING  TO  MONTESSORI) 


Provinces 

Mean 
cephalic 
index 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Dolicho- 
cephalics, 
per  cent. 

Brachy- 
cephalics, 
per  cent. 

Rome. 

78 

73 

89 

63 

37 

Caslelli  Romani  

76 

70 

79 

100 

Tivoli  

80 

76 

87 

59 

41 

Velletri  

79  5 

75 

86 

50 

50 

Frosinone  

80  7 

75 

87 

43 

57 

Civitavecchia.        .    . 

78  5 

78 

80 

65 

35 

Bracciano  

77 

75 

80 

65 

35 

Orfe  

83  6 

75 

90 

11 

89 

Acquapendente  . 

79  4 

76 

81 

60 

40 

The  results  show  a  preponderance  of  brachycephalics  or  of 
dolichocephalics  in  the  places  where  the  mean  cephalic  index  is 
respectively  highest  for  brachycephaly  (Orte)  or  for  dolichocephaly 
(Castelli  Romani).  Furthermore,  the  extreme  maximum  and 
minimum  figures  are  found  to  be  included  in  these  groups  (90  at 
Orte  and  70  at  Castelli). 

It  should  be  noted  that  at  Castelli  Romani  the  mean  average 
is.  mesaticephalic  (76),  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  brachy- 


CRANIOLOGY 


217 


cephalics;  this  average  is  based  on  figures  showing  an  extremely 
pronounced  dolichocephaly  (ranging  to  70!).  The  groups  at  Cas- 
telli  and  at  Orte  also  showed  characteristics  in  respect  to  stature 
(see  page  111) ;  at  Orte  the  mean  stature  is  1.61  m.,  with  a  maximum 
of  1.70  m.  (very  tall  statures  for  women),  and  at  Castelli  the  mean 
stature  is  1.47  m.,  with  a  minimum  of  1.42  m.  (low  statures). 

Similarly,  in  regard  to  pigmentation,  I  found  at  Orte  a  preva- 
lence of  blonds,  and  at  Castelli  of  brunettes.  Hence  the  conclusion 
may  be  drawn  that  at  Castelli  and  at  Orte  there  exist  groups  of 
human  beings  who  are  of  almost  pure  race,  in  the  midst  of  a 
population  in  which  racial  types  have  become  attenuated  or 
hidden;  but  in  centres  like  these  we  still  find  persistent  testimony 
as  to  the  ethnic  factors  that  combined  to  form  the  people  of 
Latium:  the  one,  a  blond,  tall,  brachycephalic  race;  the  other, 
dark,  small,  and  dolichocephalic. 

The  Cephalic  Index  at  Different  Ages  of  Life. — Another  quality 
that  renders  the  cephalic  index  of  great  importance  is  that  it 
remains  constant  in  the  course  of  growth,  since  the  two  maximum 
diameters,  the  antero-posterior  and  the  transverse,  increase  at 
very  nearly  the  same  rate,  excepting  during  the  earliest  years,  at 
which  time  the  length  of  the  cranium  increases  slightly  more  than 
the  width.  According  to  some  authorities  it  is  in  the  second  year, 
according  to  others  it  is  in  the  fourth  or  seventh,  that  the  cephalic 
index  becomes  constant  (Binet,  Deniker,  Pearson,  Fawcette, 
Ammon,  Johannson,  and  Westermarck). 

The  following  table  is  one  that  I  have  drawn  up  on  the  basis 
of  Quote" let's  figures : 

CEPHALIC  INDEX 


Age 

Mules 

Females 

Age 

Males 

Females 

At  birth  

83 

83 

1  1  years  

80 

79 

1  year 

80 

80 

12  years     

80 

79 

2  years  

80 

80 

13  years  

80 

79 

3  years  

80 

80 

14  years  

80 

79 

4  years. 

79 

79 

15  years       

80 

79 

5  years  

79 

79 

16  years  

80 

79 

6  years. 

79 

79 

17  years 

80 

79 

7  years  

79 

79 

18  years     

80 

79 

8  years.  . 

79 

79 

19  years 

80 

79 

9  years  

80 

79 

20  years       

80 

79 

10  years 

80 

79 

218 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Since  it  has  been  observed  that  the  cranium  in  the  course  of  its 
growth  may  assume  forms,  amounting  even  to  apparent  mal- 
formations (due  chiefly  to  "bumps,"  either  symmetrical  or  asym- 
metrical), which  disappear  during  the  evolution  of  the  individual, 
the  cephalic  index,  for  the  very  reason  that  it  does  not  represent  a 
faithful  description  of  the  form,  gives  us  precious  aid  in  judging 
the  cranium  of  the  child,  because  it  accurately  determines  the  pro- 
portions between  length  and  breadth  which  are  destined  to  persist 
even  in  the  adult,  and  hence  serve  to  give,  even  in  infancy,  a  sure 
indication  of  the  ethnic  type  to  which  the  child  belongs. 

We  owe  to  Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka  the  extremely  important  graphic 
chart,  which  I  will  proceed  to  summarise,  of  the  cephalic  indices 


t: 


Per  cent. 

Negro  Children 


Children  born 
in  Syria 

FIG.  74. 


Children  born  in 
Russia 


Children  born 
in  Germany 


of  children  of  various  races:  the  central  dotted  line  corresponds 
to  the  index  80:  consequently  the  brachycephalics  are  indicated 
on  the  right,  and  the  dolichocephalics  on  the  left  (Fig.  74). 

In  the  case  of  Italy,  the  graphic  line  extends  between  the  two 
extreme  figures  of  70  and  90,  which  are  precisely  the  extreme 
limits  that  we  have  already  noted  for  individual  adults,  in  the 
case  of  the  women  of  Latium:  moreover,  the  curve  is  perceptibly 
symmetrical,  although  the  brachycephalics  are  in  the  majority; 
a  fact  already  established  by  Livi's  mean  averages.  One  might 
say  that  this  curve  was  a  graphic  representation  of  Livi's  two- 
colour  method  in  his  map  of  the  cephalic  index:  one-half  of  Italy 
is  brachycephalic  and  the  other  half  is  dolichocephalic;  but  since 


CRANIOLOGY 


219 


brachycephaly  prevails  in  the  northern  half,  a  wider  extent  of 
territory  is  occupied  by  brachycephalics. 

In  America,  where  emigration  brings  every  variety  of  humanity, 
the  curve  is  even  more  symmetrical,  and  rests  on  a  broader  basis, 
representing  widely  separated  extremes.  Ireland  also  shows  a 
very  perceptible  symmetry,  the  population  being  a  mixture  of 
Celts  (brachycephalics)  and  of  Scotch  (northern  blond  dolicho- 
cephalics) . 

In  Germany  there  is  a  prevalence  of  brachycephalics;  we  are 
here  approaching  the  eastern  regions  from  which  the  Eurasian  race 
came  through  emigration.  Here  the  Slavs  and  Celts  (brachy- 
cephalics who  immigrated  into  Europe  at  various  epochs)  are 


* 
* 
* 
i* 
4 

\ 
« 

• 
4 
4 

I, 

\ 

N 

\^ 

4 
a 
* 
* 

5J 

V~-- 

^ 

I 
* 
« 

at 
4 

\ 

s^ 

8 

^^ 

I 

-i    ; 

^^~ 

4 

7        ? 

3 



2  \ 

^J 

s 

-~ 

'  * 

« 
* 
* 
* 
5 

/ 

^"~ 

6 

% 
tt 
* 

r^ 

^ 

/   1 

* 
* 
s 
s 
s 

1 

1 
« 
S 
* 
8 

7 

S 

** 

S                *                 *               * 

Children  born  in 
Ireland 

«                  8                  S                * 

White  Children  born 
in  America 

FIG.  74. 

*             *            s 

Per  cent. 
Children  born 
in  Italy 

intermingled  with  a  notable  percentage  of  dolichocephalics 
(Teutons) . 

But  in  Russia,  a  region  still  further  east,  and  similarly  in 
Syria,  we  find  an  almost  pure  race:  the  curves  lie  wholly  within 
the  field  of  brachycephaly. 

On  the  contrary,  the  dark-skinned  children  given  in  the  last 
chart,  and  belonging  to  African  races  and  tribes  of  American 
Indians,  are  all  of  them  dolichocephalic. 

According  to  Binet  and  other  writers,  the  cephalic  index  and 
the  cranial  volume  are  the  two  anthropological  data  on  which  the 
criterion  of  normality  of  children's  heads  must  be  based. 

When  we  observe  a  child's  head  which  is  apparently  mal- 


220  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

formed,  we  cannot  call  it  abnormal;  it  is  not  abnormal  unless  it 
has  a  volume  notably  too  small  (submicrocephaly,  microcephaly) 
or  too  large  (rickets,  hydrocephaly) ;  and  a  cephalic  index  exceeding 
the  normal  limits,  in  other  words,  exaggerated  (scaphocephaly, 
trococephaly,  pathological  brachycephaly  occurring  in  hydro- 
cephalics) . 

THE  VOLUME  OF  THE  CRANIUM 

The  volume  of  the  cranium  owes  its  importance,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  to  the  fact  that  the  cranium  represents  the  envelope 
of  the  brain,  and  is  consequently  normally  determined,  as  regards 
its  dimensions,  by  the  cerebral  volume.  Accordingly,  in  normal 
cases,  when  we  speak  of  the  cranial  volume,  we  are  speaking  by 
implication  of  the  cerebral  volume;  and  all  anthropological  ques- 
tions regarding  the  volumetric  development  of  the  cranium  in 
reality  have  reference  to  the  brain. 

In  abnormal  cases,  on  the  contrary,  it  may  happen  that  the 
bony  covering  is  not  a  skeletal  index  of  the  brain;  in  fact,  patho- 
logical cases  may  occur  analogous  to  those  we  have  already  ob- 
served in  discussing  the  etiology  of  cranial  malformations,  in 
which  the  flat  bones  of  the  cranial  vault  undergo  a  notable  thicken- 
ing, so  that  as  a  result  the  greater  volume  of  the  cranium  is  due  to 
the  increased  quantity  of  bony  substance,  and  not  of  brain  tissue, 
and  is  very  heavy,  so  that  it  readily  droops  over  upon  the  shoulder : 
pachycephalic  cranium. 

Another  cause  for  lack  of  correspondence  between  the  cerebral 
and  the  cranial  volume  may  be  the  abnormal  production  of 
cerebro-spinal  fluid  within  the  brain :  hydrocephalic  cranium. 

The  Development  of  the  Brain. — In  the  earliest  period  of 
embryonal  life,  the  brain  consists  of  a  single  vesicle,  the  con- 
tinuation of  which  forms  the  spinal  marrow:  later  on,  this  vesicle 
divides  into  three  superimposed  vesicles  which  represent  respec- 
tively the  embryonal  beginnings  of  the  anterior,  middle  and  poste- 
rior brain;  continuing  their  development,  the  anterior  and  posterior 
brains  each  divide  in  turn  into  two  other  vesicles,  so  that  there 
result  in  all  five  primitive  vesicles  of  the  brain,  superimposed  one 
upon  another  (see  Fig.  75) ;  the  anterior  vesicle  which  is  destined  to 
grow  enormously,  dividing  into  two  parts,  right  and  left,  with  a 
longitudinal  division,  will  constitute  the  cerebral  hemispheres; 


CRANIOLOGY  221 

the  second  vesicle  will  constitute  the  optic  thalami;  the  third 
vesicle,  the  corpora  quadrigemina;  the  fourth  vesicle,  the  cere- 
bellum, and  the  fifth  vesicle,  the  medulla  oblongata. 

When  complete  development  is  attained,  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres completely  cover  the  other  parts  of  the  brain,  besides 
which  they  themselves  are  covered  over  with  a  multiplicity  of 
folds    constituting    the    con- 
volutions.    If  we  take  a  cross- 
section  of   the   hemispheres, 
we  find  that  they  consist  of 
an  outer  layer  of  gray  matter 
formed  of  nerve  cells,  and  of 
a  central  mass  of  white  mat- 
ter, formed  of  fibres. 

The  study  of  the  convo- 
lutions   is    quite    important 
from      the      anthropological     r'°'  75-B~°e  £u*hHZ?ttt  Embw  ""<* 
standpoint,     because      their 
number  is   not   identical    in 

the  different  branches  of  the  human  race,  and  also  because  they 
differ  both  in  number  and  in  arrangement  from  the  convolutions 
in  the  brain  of  the  anthropoid  apes.  But  however  interesting  they 
may  be,  considered  as  differentiating  characteristics,  we  cannot 
linger  over  a  study  of  this  kind,  which  has  a  purely  theoretic  im- 
portance, and  for  the  present  cannot  be  applied  in  any  practical 
and  direct  way  to  our  problems  of  pedagogic  anthropology.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  note  rapidly  that  at  the  present  time  the  study 
of  the  convolutions  has  received  a  new  impulse  through  the  labours 
of  certain  distinguished  investigators,  among  whom  we  must  once 
more  include  Dr.  Sergio  Sergi.  Instead  of  studying  the  surface 
convolutions,  Dr.  Sergi  studies  the  internal  folds  which  are  dis- 
closed by  separating  the  lips  of  the  cerebral  fissures ;  and  from  these 
he  draws  deductions  which  to  a  large  extent  correct  those  made  by 
previous  scientists,  in  regard  to  the  eventual  ancestry  of  the  dif- 
ferent species,  the  marks  of  biological  superiority  or  inferiority, 
the  differences  in  the  brain  due  to  sex,  etc. 

The  surface  fissures  which  divide  the  cerebral  hemispheres  into 
convolutions  are  shown  in  the  two  accompanying  figures  (Figs.  76 
and  77) ,  the  first  of  which  shows  the  outer  side  of  the  hemispheres, 
and  the  second  the  inner  side. 

15 


222 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Of  chief  importance  to  us  is  the  arrangement  of  convolutions 
and  furrows  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  hemispheres. 

The  points  to  be  noted  are  the  following :  the  two  great  fissures, 
Rolando's,  running  longitudinally,  and  Silvius's  running  trans- 
versely, which,  together  with  the  perpendicular  fissure,  divide  the 
hemisphere  into  four  lobes :  the  frontal  lobe  and  the  parietal  lobe, 
situated  respectively  in  front  and  behind  Rolando's  fissure;  the 
temporal  lobe,  situated  below  Silvius's  fissure,  and  lastly,  the  occip- 
ital lobe  at  the  posterior  apex  of  the  hemisphere. 


f 


0^ 


Lt*1 


[obe 


/parallel  sulcus 
Temporal  lobe 

FIG.  76. — Cerebral  hemisphere;  external  face. 


Occipv 


In  the  third  frontal  convolution  are  situated  Broca's  centres, 
which  are  believed  to  be  the  seat  of  articulate  speech;  while  along 
Rolando's  fissure,  in  the  ascendant  convolutions,  is  the  locality 
designated  by  physiologists  as  the  motor  centres. 

The  occipital  lobe  is  the  location  of  the  zone  of  sight;  and  the 
temporal  lobe,  that  of  hearing. 

It  is  important  for  us  to  observe  the  volume  of  the  brain,  and 
therefore  that  of  the  head,  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  body;  it  is 
enormous  in  the  embryo;  and  even  at  birth  and  during  childhood 
the  head  is  quite  voluminous  as  compared  with  the  body,  as 


CRANIOLOGY 


223 


appears  from  the  diagram  in  Fig.  16,  in  which  a  new-born  child 
and  an  adult  man  are  reduced  to  the  same  scale,  each  retaining  his 
relative  bodily  proportions.  In  Fig.  22  a  new-born  child  is  shown 
in  two  positions:  from  the  front  and  from  behind;  the  head  is  very 
large  and  the  cranial  nodules  are  plainly  visible.  Figs.  80  and  81 
represent  the  same  child  at  the  age  of  six  months  and  a  year  and  a 
half;  in  the  first  picture  the  head  is  still  very  large  as  compared 
with  the  body,  and  the  forehead  protrudes  (infantile  forehead); 
in  the  second,  the  proportion  between  head  and  body  has  already 
altered. 

A  knowledge  of  the  laws  governing  the  growth  of  the  brain  is 
of  particular  importance  in  relation  to  pedagogic  anthropology. 


Rolando  'J  fissurt 
Jhterx&l  froatQ} 

parietal 
suicus 


FIG.  77. — Cerebral  hemisphere,  internal  face. 


Within  the  last  few  years  anthropologists  have  established  cer- 
tain principles  that  are  well  worthy  of  notice: 

1.  The  child's  head  is  normal  when  its  volume  and  cephalic  index 
come  within  the  limits  of  normality  (even  if  the  shape  appears 
abnormal:  Simon,  Binet,  etc.). 

2.  When  the  volume  of  the  head  is  too  small  it  frequently  indi- 
cates psychic  deficiency;  when  it  is  too  large,  even  up  to  the  age  of 
twenty  years,  it  indicates  a  predisposition  to  precocious  mortality 
(see  below). 

Very  frequently  when  the  size  of  the  head  is  larger  than  normal 
and  is  not  due  to  pathological  causes  (rickets,  hydrocephaly,  etc.), 


224 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


it  is  associated  with  an  excessive  development  of  the  brain,  and 
also  with  an  intellectual  precocity.  A  high  percentage  of  this  type 
die  before  reaching  the  age  of  twenty  years;  and  this  fact  confirms 
the  popular  belief  that  children  who  are  too  intelligent  or  too  good 
cannot  live  long. 

This  indication  alone  ought  to  be  sufficient  to  prove  the  peda- 
gogic importance  of  the  cerebral  volume. 

The  researches  made  by  various  authors  in  regard  to  the  growth 
of  the  brain  are  not  rigorously  in  accord  as  to  the  limits  of  volume: 
but  they  do  agree  as  to  the  rhythm  of  growth. 

Welcker  gives  the  following  figures : 


WEIGHT  OF  THE  BRAIN  IN  GRAMS 
(According  to  WELCKER) 


Age 

Males 

Females 

At  birth  

400 

360 

Two  months  

540 

510 

One  year  

9CO 

850 

Three  years  

1,080 

1,010 

Ten  years  ...                   

1,360 

1,250 

Accordingly,  the  weight  of  the  brain  is  doubled  before  the  end 
of  the  first  year;  according  to  Massini  it  is  very  nearly  doubled  at 
the  end  of  the  first  six  months: 


MASSINI'S  FIGURES  AS  TO  THE  WEIGHT  OF  THE  BRAIN 


Age 

Total  weight 

Increase 

At  birth  

352 

68  \  „ 

First  month  

420 

211  }279 

From  first  to  third  month  

631 

From  third  to  sixth  month             .  . 

675 

44  \ 

From  sixth  month  to  1  year  

694 

>  63 
19  f 

FIG.  78. — Spheroidal  cranium  lateral  norm     FIG.  79. — Sphaeroides  typicus  (from  Sergi's 
(Sergi's  collection).  collection). 


FIG.  80. — A  child  six  months  old.  FIG.  81. — The  same  child  a  year  and  a  half  old. 


CRANIOLOGY 


It  follows  from  these  figures  that  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  month 
the  weight  of  the  brain  is  already  very  nearly  doubled;  but  the 
maximum  growth  takes  place  between  the  ages  of  one  month  and 
three,  after  which  it  shows  a  notable  diminution  of  rate. 

But  while  the  weight  of  the  whole  body  is  increased  threefold 
by  the  end  of  the  first  year,  that  of  the  brain  is  very  far  from  being 
tripled,  since  the  rate  of  growth  is  still  further  diminished  during 
the  second  six  months;  in  fact  even  according  to  Welcker  the  weight 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year  has  little  more  than  doubled. 

Accordingly  the  rhythm  of  cerebral  growth  is  not  identical  with 
that  of  the  increase  in  weight  of  the  body  taken  as  a  whole. 

According  to  Massini,  the  relation  between  the  cerebral  weight 
and  the  weight  of  the  body,  at  the  various  successive  ages,  is  as 
follows : 


RELATION  BETWEEN  WEIGHT  OF  BRAIN  AND  TOTAL  WEIGHT 
(According  to  MASSINI) 


Age 

Brain 

Body 

Age 

Brain 

Body 

At  birth  

1 

8 

2  years  

1 

15 

First  month 

1 

9 

3  years             

1 

14 

From    first    to    third 

1 

9 

month, 
to  sixth  month. 

1 

10 

one  year  

1 

12 

25  years  

1 

40 

In  other  words,  the  body  grows  more  rapidly  than  the  brain,  and 
consequently,  than  the  head:  a  fact  which  results  in  the  different 
proportions  already  noted  between  head  and  body. 

The  rhythm  of  brain  growth  considered  by  itself  has  been  set 
forth  in  a  most  noteworthy  and  accurate  fashion  by  Boyd,  based  on 
the  study  of  about  two  thousand  cases;  from  the  figures  given  by 
Boyd,  I  have  calculated  the  amount  of  increase  from  period  to 
period,  as  well  as  from  year  to  year,  the  whole  result  being  set  forth 
in  the  following  table: 


226 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


RHYTHM  OF  GROWTH  OF  BRAIN 

(Males:  According  to  Bo  YD) 


Age 

Weight 
in 
grams 

Difference 
for  each 
period 

Difference 
for  each 
year 

Relative 
epoch 

Proportion 
to  maxi- 
mum re- 
duced to 
100 

At  birth  

331 

24  2 

From  birth  to  3  months. 
From    3  to  6  months  
From    6  months  to  1  year 
From    1  to    2  years  .... 

493 
603 

777 
942 

+  162 
+  110 
+  174 
+  165 

+446 
+  165 

1st  year 
2d  year 

36.0 
44.1 
56.8 
69  0 

From    2  to    4  years  

1,097 

+  155 

+  77 

2d-  4th 

80  4 

From    4  to    7  years  

1,140 

+  43 

+  14 

4th-  7th 

83  4 

From    7  to  14  years.  .  . 

1,302 

+  162 

+  23 

7th-14th 

95  3 

From  14  to  20  years  

1,374 

+  72 

+  12 

14th-20th 

100  5 

From  20  to  30  years  

1,357 

99  3 

From  30  to  40  years 

1,366 

+     9 

+  09 

30th-40th 

99  3 

From  40  to  50  years  

1,352 

-   14 

-  1.4 

40th-50th 

98  9 

From  50  to  60  years  

1,343 

-     9 

-  0.9 

50th-60th 

98  3 

From  60  to  70  years 

1,315 

-  28 

-  2.8 

60th-70th 

96  9 

From  70  to  80  years  

1,289 

-  26 

-  2.6 

70th-80th 

95  3 

From  80  to  90  years  . 

1,284 

-     5 

-  0.5 

80th-90th 

94  2 

In  the  above  table,  the  first  column  of  figures  gives  the  mean 
average  weight  of  the  brain,  obtained  by  direct  observation  of  in- 
dividual subjects;  while  from  all  the  others  the  rhythm  of  cerebral 
growth  and  involution  throughout  the  successive  periods  of  life  may 
be  computed. 

We  see  that  the  maximum  growth  takes  place  in  the  first  years 
of  life,  the  intensity  is  greater  in  the  first  year  than  in  the  second, 
and  greater  in  the  first  three  months  than  in  those  that  follow. 
Already  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  brain  has  surpassed  one- 
half  of  the  maximum  weight  which  the  individual  is  destined  to 
attain  in  adult  life  (last  column:  proportions  computed  on  scale  of 
100).  A  notable  rate  of  increase  continues  up  to  the  age  of  four, 
after  which  it  moderates,  but  receives  a  new  impulse  at  about  the 
fourteenth  year  (period  of  puberty) ;  hence  it  appears  that  at  this 
important  epoch  of  life  the  brain  not  only  shares  the  general  rapid 
growth  of  the  body,  but  that  by  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  year  the 
brain  has  already  practically  completed  its  development;  in  fact, 


CRANIOLOGY 


227 


assuming  that  100  represents  its  complete  development,  the  weight 
of  the  brain  is  already  95.3;  and  at  thirty  it  will  be  only  99.3. 

By  studying  the  above  table  we  can  obtain  a  clear  analysis 
of  these  phenomena. 

For  women,  Boyd  gives  the  following  figures: 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  BRAIN  IN  WOMEN 
(Figures  Given  by  BOYD) 


Age 

Weight 

Proportion  to  the 
maximum  reduced 
to  100 

At  birth  

283 

22.8 

Three  months  

452 

36  5 

From  3  to  6  months  

560 

45  2 

From  6  months  to  1  year 

728 

58  8 

From    1  to    2  years  

844 

68  1 

From    2  to    4  years  

991 

80  8 

From    4  to    7  years  

1,136 

91  7 

From    7  to  14  years            .    .        ... 

1,155 

93  3 

From  14  to  20  years  

1,244 

100  4 

From  20  to  30  years  

1,238 

100.0 

From  30  to  40  years  

1,218 

98.3 

From  40  to  50  years  

1,213 

97.9 

From  50  to  60  years  

1,221 

98.2 

From  60  to  70  years         

1,207 

97  4 

From  70  to  80  years  

1,167 

94.2 

From  80  to  90  years  

1,125 

90.8 

The  rhythm  of  growth  of  the  female  brain  is  analogous  to  that 
of  the  male,  except  for  the  more  precocious  attainment  of  the 
maximum  weight,  which  corresponds  to  the  more  precocious 
evolution  of  the  female  organism. 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  tables  above  cited  the  maximum 
is  actually  given  as  occurring  at  the  age  of  twenty;  and  that  after 
this  period  the  weight  diminishes  again,  subsequently  increasing 
up  to  an  age  that  varies  according  to  the  sex.  But  this  maximum 
at  the  age  of  twenty  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the  false  results 
of  mean  averages;  and  it  must  be  explained  on  the  ground  that 
after  the  twentieth  year  the  death  rate  has  eliminated  a  series  of 


228 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


individuals  whose  heads  were  abnormally  large,  and  that  a  majority 
of  the  survivors  were  those  whose  whose  heads  had  developed 
within  normal  limits. 

This  fact  is  further  confirmed  by  Wagner's  figures,  cited  by 
Broca : 

MEAN  WEIGHT  OF  THE  BRAIN 
(According  TO  WAGNER) 


Age 

Men 

Women 

Under  10  years  

985 

1  033 

From  11  to  20  years  

1,465 

1,285 

From  21  to  30  years  

1,341 

1,249 

From  31  to  40  years  

1,410 

1,262 

From  41  to  50  years     

1,391 

1  261 

From  51  to  60  years  

1,341 

1,236 

Above  60  years  

1,326 

1,203 

Here  again  we  have  a  false  maximum  at  twenty,  which  nature 
subsequently  corrects  through  mortality. 

From  such  knowledge  we  obtain  certain  important  rules  of 
hygiene. 

The  normal  brain  which  exceeds  the  common  limits  of  volume 
is  not,  in  an  absolute  sense,  incompatible  with  life.  We  need 
only  to  call  to  mind  certain  men  of  genius  who  had  the  brains  of  a 
giant. 

Accordingly  a  brain  which  exceeds  the  limits  demands  of  the 
individual  who  possesses  it  that  he  shall  live  according  to  certain 
special  rules  of  hygiene.  Children  and  young  people  who  are 
too  intelligent,  too  good,  in  other  words,  children  of  the  elite  class 
demand  a  special  treatment,  just  as  much  as  any  other  class 
of  beings  that  pass  beyond  the  bounds  of  average  normality. 
Parents  and  teachers  ought  to  be  enlightened  in  regard  to  these 
scientific  principles;  the  growth  of  individuals  who  are  exceptional 
in  regard  to  their  intelligence  and  their  emotions,  should  be  super- 
vised as  though  it  were  something  precious  and  fragile.  Such  indi- 
viduals are  destined  to  be  more  subject  than  others  to  infective 
maladies,  which  frequently  prove  fatal,  developing  symptoms  of 


CRANIOLOGY 


229 


meningitis  and  cerebral  affections.  Consequently  a  hygienic  life, 
psychic  repose,  an  avoidance  of  emotional  excitement,  moderate 
physical  exercise  in  farm  or  garden,  a  prolonged  stay  in  the  open 
country,  might  be  the  salvation  of  children  of  this  type,  who 
often  are  over-praised  and  over-stimulated  by  friends  and  rela- 
tives, and  consequently  subjected  to  continual  excitement  and 
surmenage  to  a  degree  destructive  to  their  health. 

Extreme  Individual  Variations  of  the  Volume  of  the  Brain. — 
In  regard  to  individual  variations,  the  authorities  give  various 
figures,  from  which  the  following  have  been  selected  as  most 
noteworthy  for  their  accuracy  of  research : 


NORMAL  EXTREMES  OF  INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  VOLUME 

OF  THE  BRAIN 


Authors 


Age:  from  20  to  60  years 


Maximum 


Minimum 


From  60  to  90 


Maximum 


Minimum 


Calori . . . 
Bischoff . 


1,542 
1,678 


1,024 
1,069 


1,485 
1,665 


1,080 
1,080 


Without  distinction  of  age: 


Broca . 


Maximum 
1,830 


Minimum 
1,049 


These  figures  refer  to  individuals  belonging  to  European 
races. 

Comparison  with  the  Brains  of  Apes. — The  brain  of  the  great 
anthropoid  apes  (Chimpanzee,  Orang-utan,  Gorilla),  whose 
total  weight  of  body  is  comparable  to  that  of  man,  weighs  on  an 
average  360  grams,  and  the  greatest  weight  which  it  can  attain 
is  420  gr. 

Specific  Gravity  of  the  Human  Brain. — In  normal  individuals, 
the  average  specific  gravity  is  1.03;  in  insane  persons  it  is  slightly 
higher:  1.04. 


230  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  Relation  between  the  Weight  of  the  Brain  and  the  Cranial 
Capacity:  Figures  given  by  Lebon: 


Weight  of  the  brain  Cranial  capacity  in 

in  grams  cubic  centimetres 

1,450  1,650 

1,350  1,550 

1,250  1,450 

1,150  1,350 


Figures  given  by  Manouvrier: 

Weight  of  the  brain  Cranial  capacity  in 

in  grams  cubic  centimetres 

1,700  1,949 

1,450  1,663 

1,250  1,432 

1,000  1,147 


Increase  in  the  Volume  of  the  Brain. — Studies  regarding  the 
growth  of  the  head,  although  not  yet  complete,  have  gone  suffi- 
ciently far  to  give  us  some  useful  ideas.  In  regard  to  the  volume 
in  a  general  sense,  the  cranium  in  its  growth  obeys  the  cerebral 
rhythm. 

We  shall  speak  in  the  section  on  Technique  of  the  methods  of 
measuring  the  head:  at  present  it  will  suffice  to  point  out  that 
the  measurements  may  be  made  directly  upon  the  cranium,  and 
the  cranial  capacity  calculated  directly  from  the  head:  and  that 
the  maximum  linear  measurements  are  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
volume — such  measurements  being  the  three  maximum  diameters, 
longitudinal,  transverse,  and  vertical,  and  the  maximum  circum- 
ference. Even  the  forehead,  as  an  index  of  the  general  volume 
of  the  brain,  is  of  interest  in  researches  relating  to  the  volumetric 
growth  of  the  head. 

Regarding  the  growth  of  the  several  cranial  dimensions,  the 
most  accurate  and  complete  knowledge  is  furnished  by  Binet's 
researches  among  the  school-children  of  Paris  (1902). 

This  author  has  made  special  investigations  into  the  rhythm 
of  growth  of  the  cranium  and  of  the  face,  with  special  reference 
to  the  period  of  puberty.  The  following  are  the  mean  averages 
obtained  by  him,  relative  to  the  three  diameters  corresponding 
to  the  three  maximum  dimensions  of  the  head: 


CRANIOLOGY 


231 


MEAN  AVERAGES  OF  CEPHALIC  MEASUREMENTS  TAKEN  UPON 
CHILDREN  OF  DIFFERENT  AGES 

(BINET:  From  the  schools  of  Paris') 


Measurement 

Kinder- 
gartens 

Lower  primary  schools 

Upper  pri- 
mary schools 

Normal 
schools 

4 

5 

8 

10 

12 

14 

14 

16 

18 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

Antero-post.  diameter  169.5 
Transverse  diameter.  .  140  .  6 
Vertical  diameter.  ...  118.8 

173.9 
141.7 
121.6 

174.7 
145 
122 

177.1 
145.7 
122.8 

181.5 
147.9 
127.6 

181.5 
150.1 
129.7 

185.3 
155.5 
128.1 

188.3 
152.3 
131.4 

190.4 
156.7 
130.8 

It  is  evident  that  these  figures  contain  inaccuracies,  especially 
in  regard  to  the  vertical  diameter  (where  the  subsequent  two-year 
period  gives  a  smaller  measurement  than  the  preceding)  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  averages  were  obtained  from  an  insufficient 
number  of  subjects  or  from  subjects  differing  too  widely  in  intelli- 
gence (from  schools  of  different  grades).  For  this  reason  Binet 
summarises  the  differences  in  growth,  that  is,  the  increase  in 
relation  to  the  diameters,  under  broad  groups  (six  year  groups, 
from  four  to  ten  years,  and  from  ten  to  sixteen),  in  order  to  deter- 
mine whether  puberty  exerts  a  sensible  influence  upon  the  cranial 
growth.  The  result  is  contained  in  the  following  table : 


INCREASE  OF  THE  THREE  MAXIMUM  DIAMETERS  OF  THE  HEAD  IN 
MILLIMETRES  FROM  FOUR  TO  EIGHTEEN  YEARS  OF  AGE 


Age  in  years:  from  —  to  — 

4-6;  6-8;  8-10 

10-12;  12-14;  14-16 

16-18 

Antero-posterior  diameter  

5.6;0.8;2.4 

4.4;  1.8;  5 

2.1 

Transverse  diameter  

8.8 
1.1;  3.3;  0.7 

11.2 
2.2;  3.9;  0.5 

4.4 

Vertical  diameter  

5.1 
2.8;0.4;  0.8 

6.6 
4.8;  2.3;  2.5 

0.6 

4.0 

9.6 

232 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


From  which  it  appears  that  there  exists,  in  regard  to  the  head, 
a  puberal  acceleration  of  growth. 

These  conclusions  of  Binet  are  indirectly  confirmed  by  the  re- 
searches of  Vitale  Vitali  regarding  the  development  of  the  forehead 
in  school-children;  since  it  is  well  known  that  the  forehead  repre- 
sents the  index  of  the  general  growth  of  the  cerebral  cranium. 

Vitale  Vitali  based  his  observations  upon  school-children  and 
students  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twenty.  He  not  only  meas- 
ured the  width  of  the  forehead  (frontal  diameter;  see  Technique), 
but  also  measured  its  height,  obtaining  the  percentage  of  its  rela- 
tion to  the  width  (frontal  index) . 

These  are  his  figures: 

FRONTAL  INDEX  AND  DIAMETER  ACCORDING  TO  AGE 

(VITALE  VITALI:  RESEARCHES  AMONG  SCHOLARS  AND  STUDENTS 
FROM  10  TO  20  YEARS   OLD) 


Age 

Frontal  index 

Frontal 
diameter 

Amount  of 
increase 

11  years  

73  05 

107  5 

12  years  

74  11 

112  0 

4.5 

13  years         

74  14 

112  5 

0.5 

14  years  

74  80 

114  4 

1.9 

15  years  

75  67 

116  8 

2.4 

16  years  

77.24 

120.1 

3.3 

17  years  

77.02 

120.6 

0.5 

18  years  

77  36 

121.5 

0.9 

19  years  

77.60 

122.8 

1.3 

20  years  

77  15 

122.1 

0.7 

Accordingly,  between  the  years  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  there  is 
a  puberal  acceleration  of  growth,  accompanied  by  an  elevation  of 
the  forehead  (high  frontal  index). 

Vitali  gives,  as  extreme  limits  of  the  frontal  index,  68  and  83. 

But  in  order  to  give  a  better  illustration  of  the  author's  figures, 
his  own  words  may  be  quoted:  "It  appears  from  our  observations 
that  the  forehead  begins  to  develop  in  notable  proportions  during 
the  fourteenth  year,  and  that  the  development  of  the  frontal  region 
as  compared  with  the  parietal  region  continues  to  augment  up  to 
the  sixteenth  year;  after  this  it  still  increases,  but  only  by  a  few 
millimetres,  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  year.  The  cephalic 


CRANIOLOGY 


233 


development  is  completed  between  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth 
years.  This  observed  fact  is  of  great  importance  in  relation  to  the 
development  of  the  intellect." 

The  most  complete  figures  at  the  present  time  on  the  growth 
of  the  brain,  are  those  of  Que'te'let,  which  follow  its  development 
from  birth  until  the  fortieth  year.  They  are  summarised  in  the 
following  table: 

INCREASE   IN   THE   CIRCUMFERENCE  OF   THE    BRAIN   AND   IN   ITS 
THREE  MAXIMUM  DIAMETERS 

(ACCORDING  TO  QU£T|LET) 


Age 

Circumference 
in  millimetres 

Maximum  diameters 

Antero-post. 

Transverse 

Vertical 

At  birth  

Men 
335 
440 
471 
486 
496 
503 
508 
513 
519 
523 
527 
531 
535 
539 
543 
547 
551 
555 
561 
563 
564 
564 
564 
564 

Women 
335 
439 
469 
483 
493 
500 
505 
509 
512 
515 
517 
518 
519 
520 
521 
523 
525 
528 
531 
533 
535 
537 
538 
538 

Men 
120 
158 
168 
171 
174 
176 
178 
179 
180 
181 
182 
183 
184 
185 
186 
186 
187 
188 
189 
190 
191 
191 
191 
191 

Women 
120 
157 
167 
170 
173 
175 
177 
178 
179 
180 
180 
181 
181 
182 
182 
183 
183 
184 
184 
185 
185 
186 
186 
186 

Men 
100 
127 
135 
137 
138 
139 
140 
142 
143 
144 
145 
146 
147 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
152 
153 
153 
153 
153 
153 

Women 
100 
126 
134 
136 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
141 
142 
142 
143 
143 
144 
144 
145 
145 
146 
146 
147 
147 
147 
147 

Men 
80 
105 
113 
117 
119 
120 
121 
122 
123 
124 
125 
126 
127 
128 
129 
130 
130 
130 
131 
131 
131 
131 
131 
131 

Women 
80 
105 
113' 
115 
116 
117 
117 
118 
118 
119 
119 
120 
121 
122 
123 
124 
125 
125 
126 
126 
126 
127 
127 
127 

1  year.  . 

2  years  

3  years    .  . 

4  years  

5  years  

6  years  

7  years  ...  . 

8  years  

9  years  

10  years  

1  1  years  

12  years  

13  years  

14  years  

15  years  

16  years  

17  years  

18  years  

19  years 

20  years  

25  years  

30  years  

40  years  

It  appears  from  the  foregoing  table  that  after  the  twenty-fifth 
year  the  growth  of  the  cranium  practically  ceases  in  all  directions. 
In  regard  to  the  rhythm  of  growth,  the  problem  is  rendered  clearer 
by  the  following  table,  which  gives  the  annual  increase : 


234 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


ANNUAL  INCREASE   IN   THE   MAXIMUM   CRANIAL   MEASUREMENTS 

IN  MALES 

(FROM  FIGURES  GIVEN  BY  QUE"T£LET) 


Age 

Circumference 

i 
Antero-post. 
diameter 

Transverse 
diameter 

Vertical 
diameter 

1 

105 

38 

27 

25 

2 

31 

10 

8 

8 

3 

15 

3 

2 

4 

4 

10 

3 

1 

2 

5 

7 

2 

2 

1 

6 

5 

2 

1 

1 

7 

5 

1 

1 

1 

8 

6 

1 

1 

1 

9 

4 

1 

1 

1 

10 

4 

1 

1 

1 

11 

4 

1 

1 

1 

12 

4 

1 

1 

1 

13 

4 

1 

1 

1 

14 

4 

1 

1 

1 

15 

4 

1 

1 

1 

16 

4 

1 

1 

1 

17 

4 

1 

1 

1 

18 

4 

1 

1 

1 

19 

4 

1 

1 

1 

20 

1 

1 

1 

1 

It  appears  from  the  above  table  that  the  total  growth  of  the 
cranium  takes  place  to  a  notable  extent  during  the  early  years  of 
life;  as  regards  the  diameters,  the  longitudinal  diameter  grows 
faster  during  the  first  few  months  than  the  transverse;  but  after 
the  first  year,  the  two  maximum  diameters  which  determine  the 
cephalic  index  increase  in  very  nearly  the  same  proportion  (con- 
stancy of  the  cephalic  index  throughout  life).  The  vertical  diam- 
eter on  the  contrary  undergoes  a  relatively  much  greater  increase 
than  the  two  others,  since,  although  much  shorter  than  the  trans- 
verse, it  nevertheless  overtakes  and  surpasses  it  in  its  absolute 
annual  increase. 

This  corresponds  to  the  fact  that  the  first  two  diameters  are 
indexes  of  growth  relative  to  the  base  of  the  cranium,  while  the 
vertical  diameter  is  the  index  of  expansion  of  the  cranial  vault, 
which  more  directly  follows  the  growth  of  the  brain  and  elevates 
the  forehead  as  it  pushes  upward. 


CRANIOLOGY 


235 


Que'te'let's  figures,  however,  fail  to  show  in  the  rhythm  of  growth 
that  puberal  acceleration  which  has  been  observed  to  take  place  in 
the  growth  of  the  brain.  This  contradicts  the  researches  of  Vitali 
and  also  those  of  Binet. 

Similar  studies  have  been  made  a  number  of  times  during  the 
last  few  years,  especially  in  America,  but  with  English  tables  of 
measurement,  and  with  little  uniformity  in  the  results  obtained 
by  the  different  investigators. 

Among  the  most  recent  and  most  complete  figures  should  be 
cited  those  of  Bonnifay*  in  which  however  the  measurement  of 
the  vertical  diameter  is  lacking,  or  in  other  words  the  third  element 
needed,  in  conjunction  with  the  dimensions  of  length  and  breadth, 
to  give  the  volumetric  factors. 


CRANIAL  MEASUREMENTS  AT  DIFFERENT  AGES 
(According  to  BONNIFAY) 


Absolute  figures 

Amount  of  increase 

Age  from  —  to  — 

Cir- 

Antero- 

Trans- 

Cir- 

Antero- 

Trans- 

cum- 

posterior 

verse 

cum- 

posterior 

verse 

ference 

diameter 

diameter 

ference 

diameter 

diameter 

Birth  to  15  days  

343.9 

116.3 

93.4 

15  days  to  2  months.  .  .  . 

368.7 

126.3 

99.1 

24.8 

10.0 

5.7 

3  months  to  4  months. 

388.8 

132.7 

106.0 

20.1 

6.4 

6.9 

6  months  to  1  year.  .  .  . 

429.8 

145.4 

118.2 

41.0 

12.7 

12.2 

1  year    to    2  years  .... 

459.7 

154.3 

129.3 

29.9 

8.9 

11.1 

2  years  to    3  years.  .  .  . 

473.5 

161.9 

133.3 

13.8 

7.6 

4.0 

3  years  to    4  years.  .  .  . 

487.4 

166.2 

136.3 

13.9 

4.3 

3.0 

4  years  to    5  years  .... 

495.7 

169.9 

138.3 

8.3 

3.7 

2.0 

5  years  to    6  years  .... 

497.8 

171.9 

140.4 

2.1 

2.0 

2.1 

6  years  to    7  years  .... 

504.4 

172.8 

141.1 

6.6 

0.9 

0.7 

7  years  to    8  years.  .  .  . 

511.6 

175.2 

143.7 

7.2 

2.4 

2.6 

8  years  to    9  years.  .  .  . 

514.1 

176.1 

144.3 

2.5 

0.9 

0.6 

9  years  to  10  years.  .  .  . 

514.7 

176.4 

144.2 

0.6 

0.3 

0.9 

10  years  to  11  years.  .  .  . 

519.8 

177.1 

146.6 

5.1 

0.7 

2.3 

11  years  to  12  years.  .  .  . 

521.1 

177.5 

145.7 

1.3  I       0.4 

0.1 

12  years  to  13  years  ....    529  .  7 

180.1 

147.8 

8.6 

2.6 

1.2 

13  years  to  14  years.  .  .  .    533.  1 

178.1 

148.5 

3.4 

•4- 

0.7 

14  years  to  17  years.  .  .  .    548.8 

182.4 

152.2 

15.7 

2.3 

3.7 

22  years  to  27  years  :  549  .  1 

186.6 

153.2 

0.3 

4.2 

1.0 

*  BONNIFAY,  On  the  development  of  the  Head  from  the  point  of  view  of  ccphalometrical 
measurements  taken  after  birth.     Thesis,  Lyons,  1807. 


236 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Among  the  linear  measurements  of  the  cranium,  the  one  which 
serves  to  give  the  most  exact  index  of  volume  is  the  maximum 
circumference. 

This  index,  nevertheless,  is  not  a  perfect  one,  in  the  same  sense 
that  the  stature,  for  instance,  is  a  perfect  index  in  respect  to  the 
body,  because  in  the  case  of  the  cranium  another  element  enters  in : 
the  form.  The  cranial  circumference  of  an  extremely  brachy- 
cephalic  cranium  (almost  circular)  may  contain  a  larger  surface 
(and  consequently  include  a  larger  volume),  than  a  maximum  cir- 
cumference of  the  same  identical  measure,  which  belongs  to  an 
extremely  dolichocephalic  cranium  (approaching  the  shape  of  an 
elongated  ellipse).  This  may  be  easily  understood  if  we  imagine  a 
loop  of  thread  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  circle :  if  we  pull  it  from  two 
opposite  sides,  the  enclosed  area  diminishes  until  it  finally  dis- 
appears as  the  two  halves  of  the  thread  close  together,  while  the 
length  of  the  thread  itself  remains  unaltered. 

Nevertheless,  the  maximum  circumference  still  remains  the 
linear  index  best  adapted  to  represent  the  volume',  indeed,  the 
authorities  take  its  proportional  relation  to  the  stature  as  repre- 
senting the  reciprocal  degree  of  development  between  head  and 
body  at  the  different  successive  ages. 

Here  are  the  figures  which  Daffner  gives  in  this  connection: 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  STATURE  AND  OF  THE  CEPHALIC  PERIMETER 
FROM  BIRTH  TO  THE  AGE  OF  ELEVEN  YEARS 


Males 

Females 

Number 

Stature 

Cranial 
peri- 

Number 

Stature 

Cranial 
peri- 

of 
subjects 

Age 

in 
centi- 
metres 

meter, 
centi- 

of 
subjects 

Age 

in 
centi- 
metres 

meter, 
centi- 

metres 

metres 

65 

At  birth 

51.17 

34.58 

65 

At  birth 

50.27 

34.23 

11 

1.55 

74.18 

46.74 

10 

1.39 

77.20 

46.45 

30 

2.43 

85.32 

48.03 

30 

2.45 

83.48 

47.23 

53 

3.34 

91.88 

49.20 

49 

3.43 

89.97 

47.73 

112 

4.43 

96.64 

49.55 

81 

4.50 

96.07 

48.37 

244 

5.42 

103.21 

50.21 

208 

5.40 

100.61 

48.76 

234 

6.41 

106.49 

50.73 

179 

6.37 

104.92 

49.87 

30 

7.30 

114.47 

51.66 

25 

7.36 

117.36 

50.38 

28 

8.38 

112.10 

51.97 

24 

8.41 

121.58 

50.72 

27 

9.40 

128.41 

52.38 

30 

9.40 

126.76 

51.10 

21 

10.34 

129.12 

52.24 

28 

10.40 

130.00 

51.08 

20 

11.42 

135.84 

52.50 

31 

11.46 

137.04 

51.42 

CRANIOLOGY 


237 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  STATURE  AND  OF  THE  CEPHALIC  PERIMETER 
BETWEEN  THE  YEARS  OF  13  AND  22 


Number  of  subjects 

Age 

Stature  in 
centimetres 

Cephalic  peri- 
meter in  centi- 
metres 

13 

13.39 

147.92 

52.83 

24 

14.50 

149.21 

53.53 

20 

15.38 

163.55 

54.34 

41 

16.43 

162.53 

53.34 

35 

17.36 

167.93 

55.89 

26 

18.35 

171.65 

54.91 

15 

19.40 

172.97 

55.48 

6 

20.05 

173.97 

56.50 

342 

21.02 

168.00 

55.37 

171 

22.22 

168.08 

55.62 

One  very  important  research  made  by  Daffner  is  in  reference 
to  the  maximums  and  minimums  that  are  normal  for  each  succes- 
sive age.  This  is  extremely  useful  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing 
the  morphological  normality  in  relation  to  the  age.  He  naturally 
bases  his  figures  upon  subjects  studied  by  him  personally,  who  al- 
together form  an  aggregate  number  of  2,230,  and  are  not  always 
sufficiently  numerous  when  distributed  according  to  their  ages. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  great  majority  of  groups,  especially  those 
including  the  younger  children,  the  number  of  subjects  is  sufficient 
and  even  superabundant. 

At  all  events,  Daffner's  researches  may  serve  as  a  valuable 
guide  in  the  researches  that  lay  the  foundation  for  diagnosis;  and 
every  future  investigator  will  find  it  an  easier  task,  under  such 
guidance,  to  make  his  own  contribution  to  it  and  to  correct  those 
inaccuracies  which  (for  certain  epochs)  are  to  be  attributed  to  an 
insufficient  number  of  subjects. 

Daffner  distinguishes,  for  each  year,  a  maximum  and  a  minimum 
both  for  the  stature  and  for  the  cephalic  perimeter;  but  since  the 
person  having  the  maximum  stature  does  not  always  have  the  max- 
imum cephalic  perimeter,  and  vice  versa,  the  author  indicates,  in 
connection  with  the  maximum  and  minimum  figures,  the  other  of 
the  two  measurements  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  corresponds  to 
them  in  each  given  case. 

16 


238 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


INDIVIDUAL  VARIATIONS 
MAXIMUMS  AND  MINIMUMS  OF  STATURE  AND  OF  CRANIAL 

CIRCUMFERENCE 


Measurements 

Maximum  (M.) 

Measurements  occurring 

S.  =  Stature 

and 

in  combination  with 

Cc.  =  Cranial 

minimum  (m.)  in 

the  M.  or  m. 

circumference 

millimetres 

measurements 

Males  from  birth  to  the  age  of  eleven  years 


M.  =372  

(S.    =625). 

At  birth  

Cranial  circumf  .  .  . 

m.  =326  

(S.    =500). 

M.  =550  

(Cc.  =369  365  354) 

Stature     

m.  =480  

(Cc.  =343,  341,  337) 

C     M.=491  

1  year  

,    . 
Cranial  circumf.  .  .  < 

f     M.  =805  

(Cc.  =491). 

Stature  > 

m.  =680  

(Cc.  =456). 

f     M.  =506  

(S.    =855). 

2  years  

Cranial  circumf        •> 

m.  =462  

(S.    =800). 

f     M.  =920  

(Cc.  =496). 

Stature  < 

m.  =785  

(Cc.  =467). 

f     M.=521  

3  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .   < 

m.  =462  

(S.    =915). 

f     M.=995  

(Cc.  =521,  501). 

Stature  < 

m.  =795  

(Cc.  =472). 

f     M.=530  

(S.    =1035). 

4  years  . 

Cranial  circumf        < 

m.  =465  

(S.    =900). 

1     M.  =  1090  

(Cc.  =510). 

Stature  < 

m.  =835  

(Cc.  =499,  481). 

(     M.=527   

(S.    =1070). 

5  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .  > 

m        4.81 

AC           Q^O") 

f       M.=1173       .       . 

(Cc.  =519). 

Stature  < 

m.  =920  

(Cc.  =495). 

Note. — =  ~  indicates  that  the  number  of  subjects  is  abundant. 
^-^—  indicates  that  the  number  of  subjects  is  sufficient. 
indicates  that  the  number  of  subjects  is  scarce. 


CRANIOLOGY  239 

MAXIMUMS  AND  MINIMUMS  OF  STATURE  AND  OF  CRANIAL 
CIRCUMFERENCE— Continued 


Age 

Measurements 
S.  =  Stature 
Cc.  =  Cranial 
circumference 

Maximum  (M.) 
and 
minimum  (m.)  in 
millimetres 

Measurements  occurring 
in  combination  with 
the  M.  or  m. 
measurements 

f     M.  =532  

(S.    =  1090). 

6  years  

L/ramal  circumf        > 

m  -481 

(S     -  1045) 

f    M.  =1163  

(Cc.  =517). 

otature  <, 

m.  =950  

(Cc.  =495). 

'     M.=541 

(S.    =  1232) 

7  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .    > 

m.  =502. 

(S.    =1156,  1223) 

f    M.  =  1276  

(Cc.  =527). 

otature  < 

m.  =1092  

(Ca.  =514). 

'     M.=542 

(S.    =1207,  1292) 

8  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .   \ 

!m.  =496  

(S.    =1158). 

M.  =1375  

(Cc.  =537). 

Stature  s 

m.  =1099  

(Cc.  =497). 

1 

'     M.  =548. 

(S.    =1333). 

9  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .    s 

m.  =  507  

(S.    =1250). 

f    M.  =  1383  

(Cc.  =546). 

otature  4 

m.  =1185 

(Cc.  =522). 

M.=553  

(S.    =1303). 

10  years  

Cranial  circumf  ...    \ 

m.  =497  

(S.    =1270). 

1 

M.  =  1372  

(Cc.  =538). 

otature  <! 

m.  =1218  .   .      . 

(Cc.  =534). 

1 

M.=543  

(S.    =1350). 

1  1  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  .    < 

!m.  =505  

(S.    =1307). 

I 

M.=1466  

(Cc.  =542). 

otature  s 

m.  =1300  

(Cc.  =513). 

240  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

FEMALES  FROM  BIRTH  TO  THE  AGE  OF  ELEVEN  YEARS 


Age. 

Measurements 
S.  =  Stature 
Cc.  =  Cranial 
circumference 

Maximum  (M). 
and 
minimum  (m.) 
in  millimetres 

Measurements 
found  in  combina- 
tion with  the  M.  or 
m.  measurements 

Observations 

At  birth. 

Cranial  circumf.  . 
Stature  

/     M.=372... 
\     m.=324... 
f     M.  =565... 

(S.    =500). 
(S.    =480). 
<Cc.  =355). 

(The  most  frequent 
S.  was  550  mm.  com- 
bined with  Cc.  = 

\     m.  =475... 

(Cc.=333,  325). 

357,  337). 

1  year.  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 

(    M.=486... 

(S.    = 

Stature  

1     m.  =450... 
(    M.=810... 

(S.    =750,  740). 
(Cc.  =486) 

\     m.=705... 

(Cc.=455). 

2  years  .  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 
Stature 

f     M.  =495... 
1     m.  =448..  . 
/    M.=910.. 

(S.    =850). 
(S.    =810). 
(Cc.  =491). 

\     m.=720... 

(Cc.=464). 

3  years.  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 
Stature  

/     M.  =501... 
1      m.=457... 
J     M.=1015.. 

(S.    =865). 
(S.    =870). 
(Cc.  =473). 

\     m.=810... 

(Cc.=476). 

4  years  .  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 
Stature 

/     M.=510... 
1      m.  =455... 
/    M.  =  1060. 

(S.    =1050). 
(S.    =920,  870). 
(Cc.  =507). 

\     m.=860.. 

(Cc.=461). 

5  years  .  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 

/    M.=515... 

(S.    =1035). 

Stature  

1      m.  =462... 
/    M.=1140.. 

(S.    =905). 
(Cc.=492). 

i 

• 

\     m.=875... 

(Cc.=481). 

6  years.  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 

1     M.=522... 

(S.    =1020). 

(The     maximum    S. 

Stature  

\     m.  =460... 
/     M.  =1221.. 

(S.    =965). 
(Cc.  =516). 

was  found  in  a  child 
of  6  years  and  11 
months;  the  next 

\     m.=920... 

(Cc.=489). 

highest  stature  was 
1177  mm.,  Cc.  512; 
another  little  girl  of 
6  years  and  11 
months  had  S.  = 
1099;  Cc.  =  507). 

7  years  .  . 

Cranial  circumf.  . 
Stature  

f     M.=524... 
\     m.=479... 
f     M.  =  1270.. 

(S.    =1215). 
(S.    =1185). 
(Cc.  =513). 

\     m.  =  1058.  . 

(Cc.=499). 

CRANIOLOGY  241 

FEMALES  FROM  BIRTH  TO  THE  AGE  OF  ELEVEN  YEARS— Continued 


Age 

Measurements 
S.  =  Stature 
Cc.  =  Cranial 
circumference 

.Maximum  (M.) 
and 
minimum  (m.) 
in  millimetres 

Measurements 
found  in  combina- 
tion with  the  M.  or 
m.  measurements 

Observations 

8  years.  . 

Cranial  circumf 
Stature  

.  /     M.=542... 
\     m.  =484... 
.   J     M.  =  1328.. 

(S.    =       ). 
(S.    =       ). 
(Cc.  =542). 

\     m.  =  1082.  . 

(Cc.=484). 

9  years.  . 

Cranial  circumf. 
Stature  

.  /     M.=526... 
\     m.=493... 
.    \     M.  =  1325  . 

(S.    =1272). 
(S.    =1306). 
(Cc.  =520). 

\     m.  =  1173.. 

(Cc.=499). 

10  years  . 

Cranial  circumf. 
Stature  

.    /     M.=533... 
\     m.=476... 
.   J     M  -1403 

(S.    =1291). 
(S.    =1204). 
(Cc  -530) 

\     m.  =  1153.. 

(Cc.=506). 

11  years. 

Cranial  circumf. 
Stature  

.  /     M.=537... 
\     m.  =478... 
.    /     M  -1464 

(S.    =1420). 
(S.    =1284). 
(Cc  —512) 

(The  next  higher  S. 
was    1495,  with    a 

\     m.  =  1255.. 

(Cc.=497). 

Cc.  of  529). 

EXTREMES  BETWEEN  THE  AGES  OF  13  AND  22  YEARS 
(The  figures  here  given  are  less  exact,  because  of  the  great  scarcity  of  subjects) 


Age 

M  easurements 
S.  =  Stature 
Cc.  =  Cranial 
circumference 

Maximum  (M.) 
and 
minimum  (m.) 
in  millimetres 

Measurements  that 
occur  in  conjunction 
with  M.  and  m. 
measurements 

13  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  . 

f     M.=554  

(S.    =       ). 

\     m.  =492  

(S.    =       ). 

Stature 

J     M.=1715  

(Cc.  =554). 

\     m.  =  1345  

(Cc.=492). 

14  years  

Cranial  circumf 

M.  =564     

(S.    =1560). 

m.  =515  

(S.    =1555). 

Stature  

M.  =  1630  

(Cc.=537). 

M.  =  1405 

(Cc.  =526). 

15  years  

Cranial  circumf 

f    M.  =567 

(S.    =1575). 

1      m.  =526        .... 

(S.    =1570). 

_ 

Stature  

J     M.  =  1795  

(Cc.=566). 

\     m.  =  1450  

(Cc.=534). 

242  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

EXTREMES  BETWEEN  THE  AGES  OF  13  AND  22  YEARS— Continued 


Age 

Measurements 
S.  =  Stature 
Cc.  =  Cranial 
circumference 

Maximum  (M.)    . 
and 
minimum  (m.) 
in  millimetres 

Measurements  that 
occur  in  conjunction 
with  M.  and  m. 
measurements 

16  years  

Cranial  circumf 

(    M.=566 

(S.    =  1675) 

\     m.  =519.. 

(S.    =  1460). 

Stature  

/     M.  =  1807  

(Cc.  =561). 

\     m.  =  1330 

(Cc.  =532) 

17  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  . 

M.  =582  

(S.    =1757). 

m.  =507  

(S.    =1610). 

Stature  

M.  =  1759 

(Cc.=560). 

m.  =  1561  

(Cc.  =555). 

18  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  . 

M.=565 

(S.    =1785). 

m.  =522  

(S.    =1702). 

Stature  

M.  =  1930 

(Cc.  =557). 

m.  =  1604.. 

(Cc.  =536). 

19  years  

Cranial  circumf.    . 

/     M.=578 

(S.    =1707). 

\     m.  =541.. 

(S.    =  1693). 

f    M.  =  1823  

(Cc.  =545). 

Stature  

\     m.  =  1637. 

(Cc.  =549). 

20  years  .  . 

Cranial  circumf.    . 

/     M.=594 

(S.    =1671). 

}      m.  =551. 

(S.    =1780). 

Stature  

f     M.  =  1832 

(Cc.  =560). 

\     m.  =  1629 

(Cc.  =552). 

21  years  

Cranial  circumf.  .  . 

/     M.=590  

(S.    =1700). 

)      m.  =512  

(S.    =1590). 

Stature  

J     M.  =  1790 

(Cc.  =581). 

\     m.  =  1570  

(Cc.  =571). 

22  years. 

Cranial  circumf 

f     M  -595 

(S     -1730) 

\     m.  =510  

(S.    =1650). 

Stature  

(    M.  =  1790. 

(Cc.  =576). 

\     m.  =  1570  

(Cc.  =548). 

Nomenclature  Relating  to  Cranial  Volume.     Anomalies. — (In 
regard  to  the  method  of  directly  measuring  or  calculating  the  cran- 
ial capacity,  and  of  taking  and  estimating  the  measurements  of 
the  skull,  see  the  section  on  Technique.} 

Limits. — The    cranial    capacity,    according   to   Deniker,    has 
normally  such  a  wide  range  of  oscillation  that  the  minimum  is 


CRANIOLOGY  243 

fully  doubled  by  the  maximum,  the  limits  being  respectively  1,100 
and  2,200  cubic  centimetres — these  figures,  however,  including 
men  of  genius.  Furthermore,  the  mean  average  capacity  oscillates 
between  limits  that  change  according  to  race — not  only  because 
the  cerebral  volume  may  of  itself  constitute  an  ethnic  character- 
istic (superior  and  inferior  races)  with  which  the  form  of  the  fore- 
head is  usually  associated,  but  also  because  the  cranial  volume 
bears  a  certain  relation  to  the  stature,  which  is  another  factor  that 
varies  with  the  race. 

Deniker  gives  the  following  mean  averages  of  oscillations: 

Europeans from  1,500  to  1,600  cu.  cm. 

Negroes from  1,400  to  1,500  cu.  cm. 

Australians,  Bushmen from  1,250  to  1,350  cu.  cm. 

The  average  difference  of  cranial  capacity  is  150  cubic  centimetres  less  in  woman 
than  in  man. 

The  following  nomenclature  for  oscillations  in  cranial  capacity 
was  established  by  Topinard,  based  upon  the  figures  and  methods 
of  Broca: 

Macrocephalic  crania from  1,950  cu.  cm.  upward 

Large  crania from  1,950  to  1,650  cu.  cm. 

Medium  or  ordinary  crania from  1,650  to  1,450  cu.  cm. 

Small  crania from  1,450  to  1,150  cu.  cm. 

Microcephalic  crania from  1,150  cu.  cm.  downward 

To-day,  however,  the  terms  macrocephalic  and  microcephalic 
have  come  to  be  reserved  for  pathological  cases.  Virchow  has 
introduced  the  term  nanocephalic  to  designate  normal  crania  of 
very  small  dimensions;  while  Sergi  has  adopted  a  binomial 
nomenclature,  calling  them  eumetopic  microcephalies,  which  sig- 
nifies possessed  of  a  fine  forehead:  since,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  pre- 
cisely the  shape  of  the  forehead  which  determines  normality.  And 
in  place  of  macrocephalic,  we  have  for  very  large  normal  crania  the 
new  term  megalocephalic. 

Pathological  terminology  includes  the  following  nomenclature: 
macrocephaly,  sub-mac rocephaly,  sub-microcephaly,  microcephaly 

Microcephaly  may  fall  as  low  as  800  cubic  centimetres;  macro- 
cephaly may  rise  as  high  as  3,000  cubic  centimetres,  and  at  these 
extremes  the  volume  alone  is  sufficient  to  denote  the  anomaly. 
But  in  many  cases  the  volume  may  fall  within  the  limits  of  nor- 
mality; in  such  cases  it  is  the  pathological  form  and  an  examination 
of  the  patient  which  lead  to  the  use  of  the  term  sub-microcephalic 
in  preference  to  that  of  nanocephalic,  etc. 


244 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


—    Normal     tfiitdren 
•  -  Abnormal      » 


The  volume,  taken  by  itself,  if  it  is  not  at  one  of  the  extreme 
limits,  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  a  verdict  of  abnormality. 

The  terms  macro-  and  microcephalic  are,  in  any  case,  quite 
generic,  and  simply  indicate  a  morphological  anomaly,  which  may 
include  many  widely  different  cases,  such,  for  example,  as  rickets, 
hydrocephaly,  pachycephaly,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  in  common  the 
morphological  characteristic  of  macrocephaly. 

In  rickets,  for  instance,  macrocephaly  may  occur  in  conjunction 
with  a  normal  or  even  supernormal  intelligence  (Leopardi). 
Microcephaly,  on  the  contrary,  could  never  occur  combined  with 
normal  intelligence,  since  it  is  a  sign  indicative  of  atrophy  of  the 

cerebro-spinal  axis  and  diminution 
or,  as  Brugia  phrases  it,  dehuman- 
ization  of  the  individuality. 

In  all  the  widely  varied  series 
of  pathological  and  degenerate  in- 
dividuals who  are  included  under 
the  generic  names  of  ''deficients'1 
and  "  criminals,"  there  is  a  notable 
percentage  of  crania  that  are  ab- 
normal both  in  volume  and  in 
form;  the  percentage  of  crania 
with  normal  dimensions  is  less  than 
that  of  the  crania  which  exceed  or 
fall  below  such  dimensions,  and 
among  these  there  is  a  preponder- 
ance of  submicrocephalic  crania:  a 
morphological  characteristic  asso- 
ciated with  a  partial  arrest  of  cere- 
bral development,  due  to  internal 
causes  and  manifested  from  the  earliest  period  of  infant  life. 

The  accompanying  chart  (Fig.  82)  demonstrates  precisely  this  fact. 
It  represents  the  growth  of  the  cranium  in  normal  and  in  abnormal 
children.  The  abnormal  are  at  one  time  superior  and  at  another 
inferior  to  the  normal  children;  but  their  general  average  shows  a 
definite  inferiority  to  the  normal.  Lombroso  established  the  fact 
that  among  adult  criminals  there  is  an  inferiority  of  cranial  develop- 
ment, frequently  accompanied  by  a  stature  that  is  normal,  or  even 
in  excess  of  normality. 

Quite  recently,  Binet  has  called  attention  to  a  form  of  sub- 


T 


V 


Fia.  82. — Growth  of  Cranial   Circumference. 


CRANIOLOGY  245 

microcephaly  acquired  through  external  causes,  which  is  of  great 
interest  from  the  pedagogic  point  of  view.  Blind  children  and 
those  who  are  deafmutes  have,  up  to  the  seventh  or  eighth  year,  a 
cranium  of  normal  dimensions,  but  by  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
year  the  volume  is  notably  below  the  normal,  and  this  stigma  of 
inferiority  remains  permanently  in  the  adults.  This  fact,  which  is 
of  very  general  occurrence,  is  attributed  by  Binet  to  a  deficiency 
of  sensations,  and  consequently  a  deficiency  of  certain  specific 
cerebral  exercises. 

This  whole  question  has  a  fundamental  interest  for  us  as  educa- 
tors, because  it  affords  an  indirect  proof  that  cerebral  exercise 
develops  the  brain,  or  in  other  words,  that  education  has  a  physical 
and  morphological  influence  as  well  as  a  psychic  one. 

This  question,  coupled  with  that  of  the  influence  of  alimentation 
upon  the  development  of  the  head,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  a 
two-fold  nutriment  is  necessary  for  the  normal  development  of 
man:  material  nutriment  and  nutriment  of  the  spirit. 

It  follows  that  education  must  be  considered  from  two  different 
points  of  view :  that  of  the  progress  of  civilisation,  and  that  of  the 
perfectionment  of  the  species. 

In  regard  to  variations  of  cranial  volume,  just  as  in  the  case  of 
variations  of  stature,  there  are  a  number  of  different  factors  which 
may  be  summed  up  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  us  certain  determin- 
ing characteristics  of  social  caste.  Delicate  questions  these,  which 
we  may  sum  up  in  a  single  question  equally  delicate,  that  lends 
itself  to  a  vast  amount  of  discussion;  namely,  what  is  the  rela- 
tion between  the  volume  of  the  brain  and  the  development  of  the 
intellect? 

Individual  Variations  of  Cerebral  (and  Cranial)  Volume.  Rela- 
tion between  the  Development  of  the  Cerebral  Volume  and  the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Intelligence. — The  series  of  arguments  in  reference  to 
the  cerebral  volume  ought  to  be  considered  independently  of  the 
biological  and  biopathological  factors  which  we  have  up  to  this 
point  been  considering;  namely,  race,  sex,  age,  degeneration  and 
disease. 

That  is  to  say,  in  normal  individuals,  other  conditions  being 
equal,  volumetric  differences  of  the  brain  may  be  met  with,  analo- 
gous to  those  other  infinite  individual  variations,  in  which  nature 
expresses  her  creative  power,  even  while  preserving  unchanged 
the  general  morphology  of  the  species, 


246  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

It  is  due  to  this  fact  that  the  innumerable  individuals  of  a  race, 
while  all  bearing  a  certain  resemblance  to  one  another,  are  never 
any  two  of  them  identically  alike. 

Variations  of  this  sort,  which  might  be  called  biological  individ- 
ualisations,  are  in  any  case  subject  to  the  most  diverse  influences 
of  environment,  which  concur  in  producing  individual  varieties. 

This  is  in  accordance  with  general  laws  which  are  applicable 
to  any  biological  question  whatever,  but  that  in  our  case  assume  a 
special  interest.  There  are  certain  men  who  have  larger  or  smaller 
brains;  and  there  are  men  of  greater  or  of  less  intelligence.  Is 
there  a  quantitative  relation  between  these  two  manifestations, 
the  morphological  and  the  psychic? 

Everyone  knows  that  this  is  one  of  those  complicated,  much 
discussed  questions  that  spread  outside  of  the  purely  scientific 
circles  and  become  one  of  the  stock  themes  of  debate  among 
classes  incompetent  to  judge;  consequently  it  has  been  colored  by 
popular  prejudice,  rather  than  by  the  light  of  science.  It  is  well 
that  persons  of  education  should  acquire  accurate  ideas  upon  the 
subject. 

If  the  volume  of  the  brain  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  intel- 
lectual development,  argues  the  general  public,  what  sort  of  a 
head  must  Dante  Alighieri  have  had?  He  would  have  had  to  be 
the  most  monstrous  macrocephalic  ever  seen  upon  earth.  And 
on  the  basis  of  this  superficial  observation,  they  wish  to  deny  any 
quantitative  relation  whatever  between  brain  and  intelligence. 
And  yet  it  is  this  same  general  public  that  keeps  insisting:  Woman 
has  less  intelligence  than  man,  because  she  has  a  smaller  brain. 

A  single  glance  up  and  down  the  zoological  scale  suffices  to  show 
that  throughout  the  whole  animal  series  a  greater  development  of 
brain  is  accompanied  by  a  correspondingly  greater  development 
of  psychic  activity;  and  that  there  is  a  conspicuous  difference 
between  the  human  brain  and  that  of  the  higher  animals  (anthro- 
poid apes),  corresponding  to  the  difference  between  the  level  of 
man's  psychic  development  and  that  of  the  higher  mammals;  and 
this  justifies  the  assertion  that,  as  a  general  rule,  there  is  a  quantita- 
tive relation  between  the  brain  and  the  intellect. 

This  suggests  the  thought  that  the  perfect  development  of  this 
delicate  instrument,  the  brain,  demands  a  variety  of  harmonious 
material  conditions,  among  others  the  volume,  in  order  to  render 
possible  the  conditions  of  psychic  perfection. 


CRANIOLOGY  247 

From  this  premise,  we  may  pass  on  to  a  more  particularised 
study  of  the  material  conditions  essential  to  the  superior  type  of 
brain.  The  volume  is  the  quantitative  index;  but  the  quality  may 
be  considered  from  various  points  of  view,  which  may  be  grouped 
as  follows: 

I.  The  General  Morphology  of  the  Brain  in  reference  to : 

(a)  The  harmonious,  relative  volumetric  proportions  between 
the  lobes  of  the  brain  (namely,  the  proportion  between  the  frontal, 
parietal,  temporal  and  occipital  lobes).     It  was  formerly  believed 
that  a  superior  brain  ought  to  show  a  prevalence  of  the  frontal 
lobes,  since  a  lofty  forehead  is  a  sign  of  intellect;  but  it  was  after- 
ward established  that  there  is  no  direct  relation  between  the  devel- 
opment of  the  forehead  and  the  development  of  the  frontal  lobes; 
a  higher  forehead  results  from  a  greater  volume  of  the  entire 
cranial  contents;  the  superior  brain,  on  the  contrary,  is  that  in 
which  no  one  lobe  prevails  over  another,  but  all  of  them  preserve 
a  reciprocal  and  perfect  harmony  of  dimensions. 

(b)  The  form,  number  and  disposition  of  the  cerebral  convolu- 
tions, and  of  the  folds  of  the  internal  passage  (Sergio  Sergi). 

(c)  The  form,  number  and  disposition  of  the  cells  in  the  cortical 
strata  of  the  brain,  and  the  proportion  between  the  gray  matter 
and  the  white,  that  is  to  say,  between  the  cells  and  fibres;  in  short, 
the  histological  structure  of  the  brain. 

II.  The  Chemistry  of  the  brain: 

(a)  The  chemical  composition  of  the  substances  constituting 
the  brain,  which  may  be  more  or  less  complicated.  (Recent  studies 
of  the  chemical  evolution  of  living  organisms  have  demonstrated 
that  the  atomic  composition  is  far  more  complex  in  the  higher 
organisms.) 

(6)  The  intimate  interchange  of  matter  in  the  cerebral  tissues, 
in  connection  with  their  nutrition. 

(c)  The  chemical  stimuli  coming  from  the  so-called  glands  of 
internal  secretion  (thyroid,  etc.). 

All  these  conditions  concur  in  determining  the  quality  of  the 
cerebral  tissues.  In  its  ontogenetic  evolution,  for  example,  the 
brain  does  not  merely  increase  in  volume,  and  its  development  is 
not  limited  to  attaining  a  definite  morphology;  but  its  intimate 
structure  and  its  chemical  composition  as  well  must  pass  through 
various  stages  of  transition  before  attaining  their  final  state.  We 
know,  for  example,  that  the  myelination  of  the  nerve  fibres  takes 


248  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

place  upward  from  the  spinal  marrow  toward  the  brain,  and  that 
the  pyramidal  tracts  (voluntary  motor  tracts)  are  the  last  to 
myelinate,  and  hence  the  last  to  perform  their  functions  in  the 
child. 

The  consistence  of  the  cerebral  mass  and  its  specific  gravity 
also  differ  in  childhood  from  that  of  the  adult  state.  The  evolution 
of  the  brain  is  therefore  a  very  complex  process;  and  this  process 
may  not  be  fully  completed  (for  instance,  it  may  be  completed  in 
volume,  but  not  in  form  or  chemical  composition,  etc.). 

Consequently,  just  as  in  the  case  of  volume,  there  may  be 
various  qualitative  conditions,  such  as  would  produce  organic 
inferiority. 

But  supposing  that  qualitatively  the  evolution  has  been  accom- 
plished normally,  where  there  is  greater  cerebral  volume,  is  there 
a  correspondingly  greater  intellect? 

At  this  point  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  another 
series  of  questions  regarding  the  brain  considered  as  a  material 
organ,  and  having  reference  to  the  relation  between  the  volume  of 
the  brain  and  that  of  the  stature. 

The  brain  must  govern  the  nerves  in  all  the  active  parts  of  the 
body,  especially  the  striped  muscles,  which  perform  all  voluntary 
movement.  Consequently  the  cerebral  volume  must  be  in  pro- 
portion, not  only  to  the  intellectuality,  but  also  to  the  physical 
activity. 

Evidently,  a  greater  mass  of  body  demands  a  greater  nervous 
system  to  give  it  motive  power. 

The  biological  law  is  of  a  general  nature:  if  the  brain  of  a  rat 
weighs  40  centigrams,  that  of  an  ox  weighs  734  grams,  and  that  of 
an  elephant  4,896  grams. 

11  The  absolute  volume  of  the  brain  increases  with  the  total  volume 
of  the  body." 

But  this  correspondence  is  not  proportional.  There  are  two 
facts  that  alter  the  proportions.  One  of  these  is  that  the  mass  of 
the  body  increases  faster  than  the  brain,  throughout  the  biological 
series  of  species,  so  that  the  smaller  the  body  the  greater  the 
proportional  quantity  of  brain.  Just  the  opposite  from  what  was 
fpund  to  hold  true  for  the  absolute  weight. 

r'>.  It  may  be  affirmed  as  a  biological  law  that  "the  relative  volume 
ef^ihe  brain  increases  as  the  size  of  the  body  diminishes."  For  in- 
stance, the  tiny  brain  of  a  rat  is  a  43d  part  of  the  total  volume  of 


CRANIOLOGY  249 

its  body;  the  brain  of  an  ox,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  750th  part. 
Consequently  we  may  say  that  the  little  rat  has  relatively  a  far 
larger  brain  than  the  huge  ox. 

And  the  same  thing  holds  true  among  men;  those  of  small 
build  have  a  proportionately  larger  brain  than  those  of  large 
build. 

A  second  fact  which  alters  the  absolute  proportion  between 
the  volume  of  brain  and  the  volume  of  body  has  reference  to  the 
"functional  capacity"  of  the  active  parts.  The  muscles  which 
are  capable  of  the  best  activity  and  the  greatest  agility  are  the 
ones  more  abundantly  stimulated  through  their  nerves  than  those 
which  are  capable  only  of  slow  and  sluggish  action.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  organs  of  sensation;  the  more  highly  the  sensibility 
is  developed,  the  larger  are  the  corresponding  nerves,  and  conse- 
quently the  greater  is  the  corresponding  quantity  of  cerebral  cells. 
Accordingly  the  animal  which  is  nimblest  in  its  movements,  and 
most  capable  of  sensations  has  in  proportion  to  this  greater 
functional  activity  a  greater  cerebral  volume.  In  this  same  way  we 
may  explain  the  enormous  difference  in  relative  brain  volume 
between  the  extremely  active,  sensitive  and  intelligent  little  beast 
which  we  call  the  rat,  and  the  sluggish  and  stupid  animal  which 
we  call  the  ox.  Consequently  this  functional  activity  has  a  corre- 
spondingly greater  volume  of  brain,  without  a  correspondingly 
greater  volume  of  the  various  highly  sensitized  organs.  In  such 
a  case  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general  law  that  "the  relative  volume 
of  the  brain  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  intelligence  (or,  more  broadly, 
to  the  functional  activity),  while  the  absolute  volume  is  in  direct  rela- 
tion to  the  total  mass  of  the  body." 

Man  has  a  cerebral  volume  of  1,500  cubic  centimetres,  a  volume 
equal  to  a  fortieth  part  of  the  whole  body.  Consequently  he  has 
a  brain  twice  the  actual  size  of  that  of  the  ox,  while  considered  in 
its  relation  to  bodily  bulk,  he  has  more  brain  than  the  smallest  rat 
(man  =  TV;  rat  =  ^V)-  A  volume  so  far  exceeding  the  proportions 
found  in  animals,  is  beyond  doubt  directly  related  to  human 
intelligence. 

Relation  between  Cerebral  and  Intellectual  Development  in  Man.— 
This  ends  our  examination  of  the  generic  question  of  the  relation 
between  cerebral  volume  and  intellect. 

Granting  these  biological  principles,  and  wishing  to  apply 
them  to  normal  man,  let  us  go  back  to  our  first  question:  "Do 


250  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

persons  of  greater  intelligence  have  a  greater  cerebral  volume,  and 
consequently  a  larger  head?" 

There  is  an  extensive  literature  upon  this  question,  the  tendency 
of  which  is  to  decide  it  affirmatively. 

Parchappe  has  made  a  comparative  study  between  writers  of 
recognized  ability  and  simple  manual  workers,  and  has  found  that 
the  former  have  a  development  of  the  head  notably  in  excess  of 
the  latter. 

Broca  took  measurements,  in  various  hospitals,  of  the  heads  of 
physicians  and  male  nurses,  and  found  a  greater  development  of 
head  in  the  case  of  the  physicians. 

Lebon  made  a  study  of  cranial  measurements  in  men  of  letters, 
tradesmen,  the  nobility  and  domestic  servants,  and  found  the  max- 
imum development  among  the  men  of  letters  and  the  minimum 
among  the  servants.  The  tradesmen,  who  at  all  events  are  per- 
forming a  work  of  social  utility,  stand  next  to  the  men  of  letters; 
while  the  aristocrats  show  some  advantage  over  the  domestics. 
Bajenoff  took  his  measurements  from  famous  persons  on  the 
one  hand  and  from  convicted  assassins  on  the  other,  and  found  a 
greater  head  development  among  the  former. 

Enrico  Ferri  has  made  similar  researches  among  soldiers  who 
have  had  a  high-school  education  and  those  who  are  uneducated, 
and  has  found  a  more  developed  cranium  among  the  educated 
soldiers. 

I  also  have  made  my  own  modest  contribution  to  this  important 
question,  by  seeking  to  determine  the  difference  in  cranial  volume 
between  the  school-children  who  stand  respectively  at  the  head 
and  foot  of  their  class,  and  have  found  among  children  of 
the  age  of  ten  a  mean  cranial  circumference  of  527  millimetres 
for  the  more  intelligent  and  of  only  518  millimetres  for  the  less 
intelligent. 

Similar  results  were  obtained  by  Binet  in  his  researches  among 
the  elementary  schools  of  Paris.  He  found  among  children  of  the 
age  of  twelve  that  the  brightest  had  a  mean  cranial  circumference 
of  540  millimetres  and  those  at  the  foot  of  their  class  a  mean  of 
only  530  millimetres.  The  following  table  gives  a  parallel  between 
these  various  cranial  measurements: 


CRANIOLOGY 


251 


CRANIAL  MEASUREMENTS  (in  Millimetres)* 

Binet Children  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Paris,  from  11  to  13  years  of  age 

Montessori. . . .   Children  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Rome,  from  9  to  11  years  of  age 


Binet's  figures 

Montessori's  figures 

Measurements 

Pupils 

Pupils 

Pupils 

Pupils 

chosen 

chosen 

Differ- 

chosen 

chosen 

Differ- 

for intel- 

as back- 

ence 

for  intel- 

as back- 

ence 

ligence 

ward 

ligence 

ward 

Maximum       circum- 

540 

530 

+  10 

527 

518 

+9 

ference  of  cranium. 

Length  of  cranium.  .  . 

181 

177 

+4 

180 

177 

+3 

Breadth  of  cranium.  . 

150.4 

146.2 

+4.2 

143 

140 

+3 

Height  of  cranium.  .  . 

123.3 

124 

-0.7 

130 

127 

+3 

Minimum     frontal 

104 

102 

+2 

99 

98 

+  1 

diameter. 

Height  of  forehead.  .  . 

46 

45.5 

+0.5 

57 

56 

+  1 

By   calculating   the   cranial   capacities   according   to   Broca's 
method,  I  obtained: 

/  in  the  best  pupils  chosen  ......  ,  .  .  .  .   1557  cu.  cm. 

.     .,  .,      , 

in  the  worst  pupils  chosen  .........    1488  cu.  cm. 


~       .  .  ., 

Cranial  capacity 


From  all  these  manifold  researches  above  cited,  we  can  reach 
no  other  conclusion  than  that  individuals  of  greater  intelligence 
have  a  larger  quantity  of  brain;  or  else  that  individuals  with  a 
greater  quantity  of  brain  are  more  intelligent. 

There  is  a  subtle  distortion  of  this  principle,  which  many  soci- 
ological anthropologists  have  taken  as  their  starting-point,  espe- 
cially in  Germany,  in  their  attempt  to  establish  a  biological  basis 
for  the  Schopenhauerian  theories  of  Friedrich  Nietzsche. 

According  to  these,  the  persons  who  have  acquired  high  social 
positions  are  biologically  superior  (possessing  a  greater  cerebral 
mass),  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  conquering  races  as  compared 
with  the  conquered.  Differences  in  caste  are  to  be  explained  in 
the  same  way,  and  on  this  ground  nature  sanctions  the  social 
inferiority  of  woman. 

This  is  a  question  of  the  greatest  importance,  which  merits  a 
vast  amount  of  discussion. 

*MONTESSORI,  Sui  caratteri  antropomctrici  in  relazione  alle  gerarchie  dei  fanciulli  nelle 
scuole,  p.  51.  ("Anthropometric  characteristics  in  relation  to  the  grading  of  children  in 
schools"). 


252  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

What  Sort  of  Man  is  the  Most  Intelligent? — Straightway,  a 
first  serious  objection  suggests  itself:  What  sort  of  persons  are  the 
most  intelligent?  Are  they  really  those  who  have  attained  the 
higher  academic  degrees  and  the  most  eminent  social  positions? 
Consequently,  is  the  Prime  Minister  more  intelligent  than  the 
Assistant  Secretary  of  State,  and  the  latter  more  intelligent  than 
the  Head  of  a  Department,  and  he  again  than  the  door-keeper? 

Are  literary  productions  and  the  acquisition  of  laurels  reliable 
tests  of  intelligence?  Is  this  man  a  doctor  because  he  is  more 
intelligent,  and  that  man  a  hospital  attendant  because  he  is  less 
intelligent? 

It  is  evident  that  there  exist  in  the  social  world  certain  priv- 
ileges of  caste,  which  may  raise  to  the  pinnacle  of  literary  glory  or  to 
a  clamorous  notoriety  certain  persons  who  owe  their  rise  to  favor- 
itism and  trickery;  or  at  least,  so-called  "literary  fame"  must  be 
dependent  upon  the  possibility  of  getting  writings  published, 
which  another  man  perhaps  would  have  had  no  way  of  bringing 
before  the  public  so  as  to  make  them  known  and  appreciated;  just 
as,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  men  of  genius  who  are  destined 
to  feel  their  inborn  intelligence  suffocating  under  the  cruel  tyranny 
of  existing  economic  conditions,  which  punish  pauperism  with 
obscurity  and  hold  protection  and  favours  at  a  distance. 

A  thousand  various  conditions  of  our  social  environment  hinder 
powerful  innate  activities  from  finding  expression  and  attaining 
elevated  social  positions.  Now,  when  we  start  to  measure  these 
different  categories  of  persons,  shall  we  measure  the  more  or  the 
less  fortunate  individuals,  those  more  or  those  less  favoured  by 
economic  conditions  of  birth  and  environment,  or  shall  we  measure 
those  persons  who  are  actually  the  more  and  the  less  intelligent? 

And  even  in  school  can  we  be  sure  that  the  child  whom  we 
judge  the  most  intelligent  is  actually  so?  Studies  in  experimental 
psychology  made  in  quite  recent  times  of  men  whose  works  justify 
their  being  placed  in  the  ranks  of  geniuses,  have  shown  that  these 
men  of  genius  were  never,  in  their  school-days,  either  at  the  head 
of  their  class,  or  winners  of  any  competitions.  Consequently,  we 
have  not  yet  learned  the  means  of  judging  intelligence. 

If  we  stop  to  think  of  the  way  in  which  the  intelligence  of  pupils 
was  judged  up  to  only  a  few  years  ago,  according  to  pedagogic 
methods  that  were  a  remnant  of  the  pietistic  schools,  this  will 
help  us  to  form  some  idea.  The  more  intelligent  ones  were  those 


CRANIOLOGY 


253 


best  able  to  recite  dogmatic  truths  from  memory.  And  even  to- 
day we  have  not  advanced  very  far  above  that  level. 

As  a  general  rule  that  pupil  is  considered  the  most  intelligent 
who  best  succeeds  in  echoing  his  teacher  and  in  modeling  his  own 
personality  as  closely  as  possible  upon  that  of  his  preceptor. 

This  fact  is  so  well  known  that  it  has  come  to  be  utilised  as 
one  of  the  clever  tricks  for  obtaining  higher  marks  even  in  univer- 
sity examinations,  and  for  winning  competitions;  it  is  known  that 
the  prize  is  reserved  for  the  student  who  can  repeat  most  faith- 
fully and  proclaim  most  eloquently  the  master's  own  ideas. 

Here  is  precisely  one  of  the  most  fundamental  problems  offered 
by  scientific  pedagogy:  how  to  diagnose  the  human  intelligence, 
and  distinguish  the  person  who  is  intelligent  from  the  person  who 
is  not.  A  difficult  task,  or  rather  a  difficult  problem. 

The  Influence  of  Economic  Conditions  upon  the  Development  of 
the  Brain. — Certain  factors,  due  to  environment,  exert  an  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  cerebral  volume;  this  fact  opens  up 
another  whole  series  of  interesting  questions. 

Among  the  factors  due  to  environment,  the  leading  place  is 
held  by  nutrition,  dependent  upon  economic  conditions. 

Niceforo  contends  that  among  the  various  social  classes,  those 
who  can  obtain  the  best  nourishment  have  the  greatest  develop- 
ment of  brain,  and  consequently  of  head.  He  offers  in  evidence 
the  figures  summarised  in  the  following  table: 

CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  THE  HEADS  OF 


Boys  of  the  age  of 

Rich 

Sons  of  small 
tradesmen  and 
clerks 

Poor 

11  years  

534.9 

529.7 

524.8 

12  years  

537.1 

530.3 

524.9 

13  years  

537.8 

532  4 

528.6 

14  years  

545.4 

533.3 

528.4 

In  short,  there  is  a  gradation  of  cranial  volume  corresponding 
to  the  economic  status  in  society.  This  is  a  condition  easy  to 
understand:  we  simply  find  repeated  in  this  particular  the  same 
thing  that  we  have  already  seen  happen  to  the  body  as  a  whole; 
the  organism  in  its  entirety  and  consequently  each  separate  part 

17 


254  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

of  it — if  it  is  to  develop  in  accordance  with  its  special  biological 
potentiality  and  so  attain  the  limits  of  finality  set  for  it — must 
receive  nourishment.  It  is  only  natural  that  children  who,  during 
their  period  of  growth,  are  deprived  of  sufficient  and  suitable 
nutrition  should  remain  inferior  in  development  to  those  who  had 
the  advantage  of  an  abundance  of  the  proper  kind  of  food.  The 
influence  of  the  economic  factor  is  indisputable.  Consequently, 
reverting  once  more  to  the  studies  above  cited,  may  we  not  con- 
clude that  the  man  of  letters,  the  physician,  the  person  of  distinc- 
tion have  a  greater  development  of  head  than  the  manual  labourer, 
the  hospital  attendant,  the  illiterate,  simply  because  it  was  their 
good  fortune  to  obtain  better  nutriment,  through  belonging  to 
the  wealthy  social  classes? 

The  Influence  of  Exercise  upon  Cerebral  Development. — The  second 
interesting  question  is  in  reference  to  the  influence  which  exercise 
may  have  upon  the  development  of  the  brain.  As  early  as  1861 
Broca  investigated  this  question  in  a  classic  work:  De  V influence 
de  V education  sur  le  volume  et  la  forme  de  la  tete  ("The  influence  of 
education  on  the  volume  and  form  of  the  head),  in  which  he  arrived 
at  the  following  conclusion:  that  a  suitable  exercise  (intellectual 
culture,  education,  hygiene)  does  have  an  influence  on  the  de- 
velopment of  the  brain,  in  the  same  way  as  with  any  other  organ, 
as,  for  example,  the  striped  muscles,  which  gain  in  volume  and 
strength  and  beauty  of  form  through  gymnastic  exercise.  "Con- 
sequently," exclaims  Broca  enthusiastically,  "education  not  only 
has  the  power  of  rendering  mankind  better;  it  has  also  the  marvel- 
lous power  of  rendering  man  superior  to  himself,  of  enlarging  his 
brain  and  perfecting  his  form!" 

"Popular  education  means  the  betterment  of  the  race." 

Accordingly  we  might  say,  relying  on  the  above-mentioned 
studies,  that  the  man  of  letters,  the  physician,  the  person  of  distinc- 
tion have  a  more  highly  developed  head  than  the  manual  workman, 
the  hospital  attendant  and  the  illiterate,  because  they  exercised 
their  brain  to  a  greater  extent,  and  not  because  they  were  more 
intelligent.  This,  however,  is  a  question  which  differs  profoundly 
from  that  which  we  were  previously  considering,  nutrition,  be- 
cause in  this  case  exercise,  in  addition  to  developing  the  organ, 
gives  its  own  actual  and  personal  contribution  to  the  intelligence. 

Therefore,  we  are  able  to  be  creators  of  intelligence  and  of 
brain  tissue,  which  in  turn  becomes  the  creative  force  of  our  civili- 


CRANIOLOGY  255 

sation.  A  system  of  instruction  which,  in  place  of  over-straining 
the  brain,  should  aid  it  to  develop  and  perfect  itself,  stimulating 
it  to  a  sort  of  autocreation,  would  truly  be,  as  Broca  says,  "capa- 
ble of  rendering  man  superior  to  himself."  This  is  what  is  being 
sought  by  scientific  pedagogy,  which  has  already  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  "cerebral  hygiene." 

We  are  still  very  far  to-day  from  realising  this  highest  human 
ambition!  We  do  not  yet  know  the  basic  laws  of  the  economy  of 
forces  that  would  lead  to  a  stimulation  of  the  human  activities 
to  the  point  of  creation ;  on  the  contrary,  we  are  still  at  a  primitive 
period,  in  which  many  of  the  environing  conditions  interfere,  to  the 
point  of  preventing  the  human  germ  to  attain  its  natural  biological 
finality.  In  short,  we  know  how  to  obtain  artificially  an  arrest 
of  development;  but  we  have  not  yet  learned  the  art  of  aiding  and 
enriching  nature! 

The  Influence  of  the  Biological  Factor  upon  Cerebral  Development. 
—What  conclusion  ought  we  to  reach  from  what  has  been  said 
up  to  this  point?  Upon  what  does  the  cerebral  volume  depend,  in 
all  its  individual  variations,  resting  on  the  common  biological 
bases  of  race,  normality  and  sex?  Is  individual  variation  due 
solely  to  causes  of  environment,  such  as  nutrition  and  exercise? 
And  does  it  follow  that  it  is  not  dependent  upon  biological  potential- 
ities more  or  less  pronounced  in  separate  individuals — in  short, 
upon  different  degrees  of  intelligence? 

In  the  presence  of  such  a  multiplicity  of  questions  we  must  pro- 
ceed, not  to  a  selection  but  to  a  sum.  Every  biological  phenom- 
enon is  the  result  of  a  number  of  factors.  The  development  of  the 
brain  depends  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  development  of  the 
whole  body  or  of  a  single  muscle,  upon  the  combined  influence  of  bio- 
logical factors  determining  the  individual  variability,  and  of  factors 
of  environment,  principal  among  which  are  nutrition  and  exercise. 
A  suitable  diet  aids  growth,  and  so  also  does  a  rational  exercise; 
but  underlying  all  the  rest,  as  a  potential  cause,  is  the  biological 
factor  which  mysteriously  assigns  a  certain  predestination  to  each 
individual.  The  environment  may  combat,  alter,  and  impede 
what  nature  "had  written  upon  the  fertilised  ovum;"  but  we 
cannot  forget  that  this  scheme,  pre-established  by  the  natural  order 
of  life,  is  the  principal  factor  among  them  all,  the  one  which  deter- 
mines the  "character  of  the  individual." 

Now,  on  the  basis  of  this  influence  of  the  biological  factor  upon 


256  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  cerebral  development,  we  may  affirm  that:  to  greater  intelli- 
gence there  corresponds  a  brain  more  developed  in  volume.  What 
gives  us  proof  of  this  is  the  brain  of  the  exceptional  man — of  men 
of  genius,  who  frequently  have  heads  of  extraordinary  volume. 

Persons  of  high  celebrity,  and  not  those,  for  example,  who  have 
become  known  through  some  recent  discovery  in  the  field  of  posi- 
tive science — since  a  piece  of  good  fortune  may  coincide  with  a 
normal  cranial  volume — but  the  true  creative  geniuses  who  have 
left  the  deep  imprint  of  themselves  upon  their  immortal  works, 
have  generally  had  a  cerebral  volume  that  was  truly  gigantic: 
the  poetic  brain  of  the  great  Schiller  weighed  1,785  grams,  that  of 
Cuvier,  the  naturalist,  1,829  grams,  that  of  the  great  statesman, 
Cromwell,  2,231  grams,  and  lastly,  that  of  Byron,  2,238  grams. 
The  brain  of  the  normal  man  weighs  about  1,400  grams. 

Consequently,  these  are  extraordinary  volumetric  figures  that 
could  not  be  acquired,  either  by  much  eating,  or  by  being  educated 
according  to  the  scientific  means  of  the  most  advanced  peda- 
gogy; they  are  due  to  the  extraordinary  biological  potentiality 
of  the  man  of  genius. 

In  these  extraordinary  heads  the  exceptional  volume  is  com- 
bined with  a  characteristic  form:  they  always  have  a  more  than 
normal  development  of  the  forehead.  Even  in  the  course  of 
biological  evolution,  as  we  have  already  seen,  in  the  higher  species 
a  greater  cerebral  volume  has  a  correspondingly  broader  and  more 
erect  forehead.  If  we  examine  portraits  of  men  of  genius,  what 
strikes  us  chiefly  in  them  is  the  high  and  spacious  brow,  as  though 
men  of  genius,  in  comparison  with  the  rest  of  us,  were  representa- 
tives of  a  superior  race.  But  if  the  portrait  shows  the  face  taken 
in  profile,  it  will  be  easily  observed  that  the  direction  of  the  forehead 
is  not  vertical,  but  even  slightly  recessive ;  that  is,  it  preserves  the 
characteristic  male  form,  with  the  vault  slightly  inclined  backward 
and  the  orbital  arches  slightly  pronounced. 

The  Pretended  Cerebral  Inferiority  of  Woman. — One  final  argu- 
ment, which  is  of  interest  to  us,  is  the  great  question  of  the  relation 
between  cerebral  volume  and  intelligence  in  woman.  Because,  as 
you  know,  there  is  a  very  widespread  belief  of  long  standing  that 
is  confirmed  in  the  name  of  science:  that  woman  is  biologically, 
in  other  words  totally,  inferior,  that  the  volume  of  her  brain  is 
condemned  by  nature  to  an  inferiority  against  which  nothing  can 
prevail.  Just  as  our  perfected  pedagogy,  excellent  alimentation 


CRANIOLOGY  257 

and  improved  hygienic  conditions  could  never  endow  a  normal 
man  with  the  brain  of  a  genius,  in  the  same  way,  so  it  is  said,  it  is 
impossible  ever  to  augment  the  size  of  the  brain  of  woman,  who  is 
necessarily  condemned  to  resign  herself  to  remain  in  that  state  of 
social  inferiority  to  which  she  is  now  reduced  and  from  which  she 
would  in  vain  attempt  to  emancipate  herself. 

Names  as  famous  as  that  of  Lombroso*  which  are  associated 
with  the  progress  of  positive  science,  lend  the  weight  of  their 
authority  to  this  form  of  condemnation!  And  it  is  not  easy  to  do 
away  with  this  sort  of  prejudice,  which  has  slowly  been  dissemi- 
nated among  the  people  under  the  guise  of  a  scientific  theory.  But 
to-day  there  are  scientists  who  have  been  impelled  to  make  certain 
extremely  minute,  impartial  and  objective  studies,  without  any 
preconception  on  the  subject — such  men  as  Messedaglia,  Dubois, 
Lapique,  Zanolli,  and  Manouvrier — who,  by  calculating  the 
cerebral  mass,  at  one  time  in  comparison  with  the  whole  body,  at 
another  with  the  surface  of  the  body,  and  still  again  with  the 
various  active  or  skeletal  parts  of  the  organism — have  arrived  at 
an  opposite  conclusion:  namely,  that  they  can  demonstrate  a  greater 
development  of  brain  in  woman.  Among  these  scientists  it  gives 
me  pleasure  to  name  before  all  others  Manouvrier — one  of  the 
most  gifted  anthropologists  of  our  day — who  has  devoted  twenty 
years  to  an  exceedingly  minute  study  of  this  problem.  Here  in 
brief  outline  are  his  method  of  procedure  and  his  conclusions. 
That  the  cerebral  volume  should  be  considered  in  its  relation  to 
the  stature  is  a  familiar  principle;  but  a  comparison  between  man 
and  woman  based  solely  upon  such  a  proportion,  continues  to 
maintain  the  cerebral  inferiority  of  woman.  Have  we,  however, 
the  right  to  compare  a  volumetric  measure  (the  cerebral  mass) 
with  a  linear  measure  (the  stature)?  Such  a  comparison  is  a 
mathematical  error,  as  we  have  already  technically  proved. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  Manouvrier  compares  the  brain  with  the 
mass  of  the  whole  body,  its  entire  bulk;  and  he  analyzes  this  entire 
bulk,  considering  separately  its  active  parts,  without  troubling 
himself  about  their  functional  potentiality.  He  deduces  from  them 
certain  figures  and  proportions;  more  than  that,  he  forms  a  sort 
of  index,  which  might  be  called  the  "  index  of  sexual  mass,"  between 
woman  (minor  mass)  and  man,  reduced  to  a  scale  of  100 — which 

*  LOMBROSO  (who  died  while  this  book  was  in  press)  defended  the  principle  of  the  innate 
inferiority  of  woman  and  regarded  her,  in  comparison  with  man,  as  a  case  of  infantile  arrest 
of  development. 


258  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

may  be  summed  up  in  an  equation:  man  :  100=  woman  :  the 
following  percentual  analyses: 

Stature  and  weight  of  body 88 . 5 

Weight  of  brain 90.0 

Weight  of  skeleton  (femur) 62 . 5 

CO2  exhaled  in  twenty-four  hours 64 . 5 

Vital  capacity  (at  age  of  eighteen) 72 . 6 

Strength  of  hands 57 . 1 

Strength  of  vertical  traction 52 . 6 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that,  in  comparison  with  her  actual  organic 
mass,  woman  differs  from  man  far  more  than  is  indicated  by  the 
differences  in  stature  and  in  bodily  weight. 

Instead  of  taking  all  these  various  separate  mean  measurements, 
let  us  take  one  single  comprehensive  mean  resulting  from  them: 
woman:  man  =  80  : 100;  there  we  have  the  proportion.  Now, 
Manouvrier  proceeds  to  reduce  all  the  separate  measurements  of 
man  from  100  to  80,  and  calculates  how  much  brain  man  would  lose 
if  he  were  reduced  to  a  mass  having  feminine  limits;  he  finds  that 
the  loss  would  be  172  grams.  Woman  on  the  contrary  has  only 
150  grams  of  brain  less  than  man.  Consequently  the  cerebral 
volume  of  woman  is  superior  to  that  of  man! 

This  is  an  anthropological  superiority  which  is  further  revealed 
in  the  more  perfected  form  of  the  cranium,  insomuch  as  woman  has 
an  absolutely  erect  forehead  and  has  no  remaining  traces  of  the 
supra-orbital  arches  (characteristics  of  superiority  in  the  species). 

Thus,  we  have  a  contradiction  between  existing  anthropolog- 
ical and  social  conditions:  woman,  whom  anthropology  regards  as 
a  being  having  the  cranium  of  an  almost  superior  race,  continues 
to  be  relegated  to  an  unquestioned  social  inferiority,  from  which 
it  is  not  easy  to  raise  her. 

Who  is  Socially  Superior? — But  here  again  we  may  ask,  as  we 
did  regarding  the  question  of  intelligence :  What  constitutes  social 
superiority?  And  in  our  social  environment  who  is  superior  and 
who  is  inferior? 

Social  superiority,  like  moral  superiority,  is  the  product  of 
evolution.  In  primitive  times  when  men,  in  order  to  live,  were 
limited  like  animals  to  gathering  the  spontaneous  fruit  of  the  earth, 
according  to  the  poetry  of  the  biblical  legend,  and  according  to 
what  sociology  repeats  to-day,  the  superior  man  was  the  one  of 
largest  stature,  the  giant.  People  paid  him  homage  because  he  was 
the  most  imposing,  without  troubling  themselves  to  ask  whether, 


FIG.  83. — Leptoprosopic  face. 


FIG.  84. — Chameprosopic  face. 


FIG.  85. — Lina  Cavalieri. 


FIG.  86. — Maria  Mancini. 


CRANIOLOGY  259 

or  not,  he  might  be  insane.  In  this  way  Saul  was  the  first  king. 
When  the  time  came  that  men  were  no  longer  content  to  live  on 
the  spontaneous  fruit  of  the  earth,  but  were  forced  to  till  the  soil, 
then  a  new  victory  was  inaugurated,  the  victory  of  the  more 
active  and  intelligent  man.  David  killed  Goliath.  This  great 
Bible  story  marks  the  moment  when  the  superiority  of  man  came 
to  be  considered  under  a  more  advanced  and  spiritual  aspect. 
When  the  men  who  cultivated  the  earth  began  to  feel  the  need  of 
other  neighbouring  lands  and  became  conquerors,  then  the  soldier 
was  evolved,  until  in  the  middle  ages  there  resulted  such  a  triumph 
of  militarism  that  the  nobles  alone  were  conquerors  in  war;  and 
the  persons  who  to-day  would  be  called  superior,  the  men  of  intel- 
lect, the  poets,  were  considered  as  feeble  folk,  despicable  and 
effeminate.  In  our  own  times,  now  that  the  great  conquests  of 
the  earth  have  been  made  and  the  victorious  people  consequently 
brought  into  harmony,  the  moment  has  come  for  conquering  the 
environment  itself,  in  order  to  wring  from  it  new  bread  and  new 
wealth.  And  this  is  the  proud  work  of  human  intelligence  which 
creates  by  aiding  all  the  forces  of  nature  and  by  triumphing  over 
its  environment;  thus  to-day  it  is  the  man  of  intelligence  who  is 
superior.  But  it  seems  as  though  a  new  epoch  were  in  preparation, 
a  truly  human  epoch,  and  as  though  the  end  had  almost  come  of 
those  evolutionary  periods  which  sum  up  the  history  of  the  heroic 
struggles  of  humanity;  an  epoch  in  which  an  assured  peace  will 
promote  the  brotherhood  of  man,  while  morality  and  love  will 
take  their  place  as  the  highest  form  of  human  superiority.  In 
such  an  epoch  there  will  really  be  superior  human  beings,  there 
will  really  be  men  strong  in  morality  and  in  sentiment.  Perhaps 
in  this  way  the  reign  of  woman  is  approaching,  when  the  enigma 
of  her  anthropological  superiority  will  be  deciphered.  Woman 
was  always  the  custodian  of  human  sentiment,  morality  and  honour, 
and  in  these  respects  man  always  has  yielded  woman  the  palm. 

FACE  AND  VISAGE 

The  Limits  of  the  Face. — The  face  is  that  part  of  the  head  which 
remains  when  the  cranial  cavity  is  not  considered.  To  attempt 
to  separate  accurately,  in  the  skeleton,  the  facial  from  the  cerebral 
portion  would  involve  a  lengthy  anatomical  description;  for  our 
purpose  it  is  enough  to  grasp  the  general  idea  that  the  face  is  the 
portion  situated  beneath  the  forehead,  bounded  in  front  by  the 


260  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

curves  of  the  eyebrows,  and  in  profile  by  a  line  passing  in  projec- 
tion through  the  auricular  foramen  and  the  external  orbital 
apophysis  (Fig.  39,  page  188). 

It  is  customary  during  life  to  consider  the  entire  anterior  por- 
tion of  the  head  as  constituting  one  single  whole,  bounded  above 
by  the  line  formed  by  the  roots  of  the  hair,  and  below  by  the  chin. 
This  portion  includes  actually  not  only  the  face  but  a  portion  of  the 
cerebral  cranium  as  well,  namely,  the  forehead;  it  bears  the  name 
of  the  visage  and  is  considered  under  this  aspect  only  during  life. 

Human  Characteristics  of  the  Face. — One  characteristic  of  the 
human  cranium,  as  we  have  already  seen  (Fig.  40),  as  compared 
with  animals,  is  the  decrease  in  size  of  the  face,  and  especially  of 
the  jaw-bones  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  cranial 
volume. 

"Man,"  says  Cuvier,  "is  of  all  living  animals  the  one  that  has 
the  largest  cranium  and  the  smallest  face ;  and  animals  are  stupider 
and  more  ferocious  as  they  depart  further  from  the  human 
proportions." 

In  man,  the  cranium,  assuming  that  graceful  development 
which  is  characteristic  of  this  superior  species,  surmounts  the  face, 
which  recedes  below  the  extreme  frontal  limit  of  the  brain. 

The  different  races  of  mankind,  however,  do  not  all  of  them 
attain  so  perfect  a  form;  in  some  of  them  the  face  protrudes  some- 
what in  advance  of  the  extreme  frontal  limit,  and  in  such  cases  we 
say  that  it  is  prognathous. 

Thus  the  relations  in  the  reciprocal  development  between  cran- 
ium and  face  are  different  in  animals  and  in  man;  as  they  also  are 
in  the  various  human  races.  Cuvier  gives  some  idea  of  these  pro- 
portions by  comparing  the  European  man  with  animals,  by  means 
of  the  following  formulas  which  he  has  obtained  by  calculating 
approximately  the  square  surface  of  a  middle  section  of  the  head: 


European  man 

Cranium  :  face  — 

.    .    .    .4:1 

(cranium  four 
Orang-utan  and 

times  the  size  of  the  face) 
chimpanzee  

.    .   .    .3:1 

Lower  monkeys 

.    .    .    .2:1 

Carnivora.    .    . 

.    .    .    .1:1 

Ruminants 

.   .    .    .   1:2 

Hippopotamus 

....1:3 

Horse  . 

.   1  :4 

(the  reverse  of  man) 
Whale.  .  .   1  :20 


FIG.  87. — Portrait  of  the  Fornarina 
(Raphael  Sanzio)  Rome:  Barbarini 
gallery. 


FIG.  88. — Triangular  face. 


FIG.  89.— Ellipsoidal  face. 


FIG.  90. — Long  ovoid  face. 


CRANIOLOGY  261 

But  no  general  law,  no  systematic  connection  can  be  deduced 
from  such  relative  proportions.  They  serve  only  to  demonstrate 
a  characteristic. 

Upon  this  characteristic  depends  preeminently  the  beauty  of 
the  human  visage.  If  we  are  considering  the  visage  from  its 
aesthetic  aspect  and  wish  to  compare  it  with  the  muzzle  of  animals, 
we  may  say  that  in  regard  to  its  proportions  it  is  as  though  the 
muzzle  had  been  forced  backward  from  its  apex,  while  the  cranium 
had  swelled,  through  the  increase  of  its  vertical  diameter.  The 
muzzle  is  formed  of  the  two  jaws  alone,  on  the  upper  of  which  the 
nose  is  located  horizontally;  there  is  neither  forehead  nor  chin  along 
the  vertical  line  of  the  visage.  As  the  jaws  recede  and  the  cranium 
augments,  the  forehead  rises,  the  nose  becomes  vertical,  and  when 
the  mandible  has  retreated  beyond  the  frontal  limit,  the  wide 
yawning  mouth  has  been  reduced  in  size,  while  a  new  formation 
has  appeared  below  it — the  chin.  By  this,  I  am  trying  merely 
to  draw  a  comparison  which  I  trust  will  be  of  service  by  suggesting 
a  didactic  method  of  illustrating  the  reduction  of  an  animal's 
muzzle  to  human  proportions.  Whatever  forms  a  part  of  the 
visage  bears  the  morphological  stamp  of  humanity:  the  forehead, 
the  erect  nose  and  the  entire  region  of  the  mandible,  which  contains 
the  principal  beauty  of  the  human  face. 

The  narrow  opening  of  the  lips,  mobile  because  so  richly  en- 
dowed with  the  muscles  that  unite  in  forming  it,  is  quite  truly  the 
charming  and  gracious  doorway  of  the  organs  of  speech,  which  by 
shaping  the  internal  thought  into  words  are  able  to  give  it  utter- 
ance; while  the  winning  smile  allures,  captivates  and  consoles, 
thereby  accomplishing  an  eminently  social  function;  and  socia- 
bility is  inseparable  from  humanity. 

The  animal  mouth,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  organ  for  seizing 
food,  the  organ  of  mastication,  and,  in  felines,  a  weapon  of  offence 
and  a  means  of  destruction. 

Tarde  says:  "The  mandibles  seem  to  shape  themselves  in 
accordance  to  the  degree  of  intelligence;  they  become  more  finely 
modeled  in  proportion  as  the  two  social  functions  of  speaking  and 
smiling  acquire  a  greater  importance  than  the  two  individual 
functions  of  biting  and  masticating." 

And  Mantegazza  says:  "Cruelty  has  localised  its  imprint 
around  the  mouth,  perhaps  because  killing  and  eating  are  two 
successive  moments  of  the  same  event." 


262  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

THE  NORMAL  VISAGE 

The  visage  is  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  preeminently 
human;  being  richly  endowed  with  muscles,  it  represents  the 
"mirror  of  the  soul,"  through  the  expressions  that  it  assumes 
according  to  the  successive  sentiments,  passions  and  transitions 
of  thought.  The  visage  is  a  true  mine  of  individual  character- 
istics, by  which  different  persons  may  be  most  easily  and  clearly 
distinguished  from  one  another;  while  at  the  same  time  it  bears 
the  stamp  of  the  most  general  characteristics  of  race,  such  as  the 
form,  the  expression,  the  tone  of  complexion,  etc.,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  face  has  hitherto  held  the  first  place  in  the  classifica- 
tions of  the  human  races. 

Even  the  peoples  of  ancient  times,  such  as  the  Egyptians,  made 
a  physiognomical  study  of  individual  characteristics,  founding  a 
sort  of  empirical  science  that  sought  to  read  from  the  physiognomy 
-\  the  sentiments  of  the  soul,  the  tendencies  of  character  and  the  des- 
tiny of  man.  [The  visage  also  contains  the  greatest  degree  of 
!  attraction  and  charm,  constituting  that  physical  and  spiritual 
beauty  by  which  one  person  arouses  in  others  feelings  of  sympathy 
and  love.  Oriental  women  cover  their  faces  with  thick  veils 
through  modesty,  because  the  face  reveals  the  entire  feminine 
individuality,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  reveals  only  the  female  of 
the  human  species,  a  quality  common  to  all  women. 

The  visage  includes  many  important  parts,  which,  by  develop- 
ing differently  alter  the  physiognomy;  the  forehead,  index  of 
cerebral  development,  surmounts  the  face  like  a  crown,  revealing 
each  individual's  capacity  for  thought;  furthermore,  the  visage 
contains  all  the  organs  of  specific  sense:  sight,  hearing,  smell  and 
taste,  and  hence  all  the  "gate- ways  of  intelligence." 

The  organs  of  mastication,  whose  skeleton  consists  of  the  maxil- 
laries  and  the  zygomata  which  reinforce  and  anchor  the  upper  max- 
illary, are  the  parts  that  constitute  by  far  the  greater  portion  of 
the  facial  mass.  In  fact,  their  limits  (breadth  between  the  two 
zygomata;  breadth  between  the  external  angles  of  the  mandible, 
chin)  are  the  determining  factors  of  the  contour  and  general  form 
of  the  face,  which  is  completed  by  the  soft  tissues. 

Forms  of  Face. — The  first  distinction  in  facial  forms  is  that  which 
is  made  between  long  or  leptoprosopic  faces  and  short  or  chamepro- 
sopic  faces.  Figs.  83  and  84  (facing  page  258)  represent  two  faces 


FIG.    91. — Tetragonal  face   (parallelopipe-       FIG.  92. — Pentagonal  leptoprosopic  face, 
doidal) . 


FIG.  93. — Pentagonal  mesoprosopic  face.      FIG.  94. — Face  of  inferior  type  prominence 

of  the  maxillary  bones  (prognathism). 


CRANIOLOGY  263 

having  the  same  identical  breadth  between  the  zygomata  or  cheek- 
bones; the  profound  difference  between  them  is  due  to  their  differ- 
ent height  or  length  of  visage. 

The  precise  relation  between  height  and  breadth  constitutes 
the  index  of  visage,  which  is  analogous  to  the  index  that  we  have 
already  observed  for  the  cranium. 

Normally  there  is  a  correspondence  in  form  between  the  cran- 
ium and  the  face;  dolichocephalics  are  also  leptoprosopic ;  and 
brachycephalics  are  chameprosopics;  normally,  also,  mesaticephaly 
is  found  in  conjunction  with  mesoprosopy;  but  owing  to  the  phe- 
nomena of  hybridism  or  pathological  causes  (rickets),  it  may  also 
happen  that  such  correspondence  is  wanting;  and  that  we  have 
instead,  for  instance,  a  leptoprosopic  face  with  a  brachycephalic 
cranium  or  vice  versa. 

Accordingly,  long  and  short  faces  are  characteristics  of  race 
almost  as  important  as  the  cephalic  index.  But  leptoprosopy  and 
chameprosopy  are  not  in  themselves  sufficient  to  determine  the  form 
of  the  face.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  case  of  living  persons  it  is 
necessary  also  to  take  into  consideration  the  contour  of  the  visage, 
which  contains  characteristics  relating  to  race,  age  and  sex.  The 
races  which  are  held  to  be  inferior  have  facial  contours  that  are  more 
or  less  angular;  those  that  are  held  to  be  superior  have,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  rotundity  of  contour;  men  have  a  more  angular  facial 
contour,  in  comparison  with  that  of  women;  while  children  have  a 
contour  of  face  that  is  distinctly  rotund. 

The  angularities  of  the  face  are  due  to  certain  skeletal  promi- 
nences, owing  either  to  an  excessive  development  of  the  zygcmata 
(cheek-bones),  or  to  a  development  of  the  maxillaries,  which  some- 
times produce  a  salience  of  the  lower  corners  of  the  mandible, 
and  at  others  a  prominence  of  the  maxillary  arch  (prognathism). 

Accordingly,  the  facial  contours  may  be  either  rounded  or  angu- 
lar, and  that,  too,  independently  of  the  facial  type;  because  in 
either  case  the  visage  may  be  either  long  or  short. 

Depending  upon  the  rounded  facial  contours,  the  visage  may 
be  distinguished  as  ellipsoidal  or  oval;  we  may  meet  with  faces 
that  are  long,  short  or  medium  ellipsoids  (leptoprosopic,  chamepro- 
sopic,  mesoprosopic  faces),  even  to  a  point  where  the  contour  is 
almost  circular :  the  orbicular  face.  Similarly,  the  oval  faces  may 
be  classified  as  long,  short  and  medium  ovals.  The  so-called  typical 
Roman  visage  is  mesoprosopic,  with  an  ellipsoidal  contour.  The 


264  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

faces  of  Cavalieri  and  of  the  Fornarina  (Figs.  85,  87),  celebrated  for 
their  beauty,  are  mesoprosopic  ovals — and  the  exceptionally  beauti- 
ful face  of  Maria  Mancini  is  a  mesoprosopic  ellipse  (Fig.  86). 

Countenances  with  rounded  and  mesoprosopic  contours  belong 
to  the  Mediterranean  race,  and  the  more  closely  they  come  to 
the  mean  average  of  that  type  and  to  a  fusion  of  contours,  the  more 
beautiful  they  are. 

Faces  with  angular  contours  may  be :  triangular  (due  to  promi- 
nence of  the  cheek-bones,  or  zygomata,  and  of  the  chin) ;  tetragonal, 
further  subdivided  into  quadrangular  (chameprosopic)  and  parallel- 
epipedoidal  (leptoprosopic,  due  to  prominence  of  zygomata  and 
corners  of  mandible);  and  polygonal,  which  may  be  either  penta- 
gonal, formed  by  the  protrusion  of  the  zygomata,  the  angles  of 
the  mandible,  and  the  chin;  or  hexagonal,  formed  by  protrusion 
of  the  frontal  nodules,  the  zygomata  and  the  angles  of  the 
mandible. 

There  may  occur,  in  certain  types  of  face,  a  very  notable  preva- 
lence of  one  part  over  another,  so  much  so  as  to  produce  sharply 
differentiated  and  characteristic  physiognomies.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, a  prevalence  of  forehead  characterises  the  higher  and  superior 
type  of  the  man  of  genius  (compare  the  portrait  of  Bellini  or  of  Dar- 
win). On  the  other  hand,  a  prevalence  either  of  the  cheek-bones, 
or  the  lower  jaw,  or  the  angles  of  the  mandible,  together  with  an 
accompanying  powerful  development  of  the  masticatory  muscles, 
produce  three  different  types,  all  of  them  chameprosopic,  which 
represent,  in  respect  to  the  face,  inferior  racial  types,  differing 
from  one  another,  but  which  are  frequently  met  with  (at  least 
to  a  noticeable  extent)  even  among  our  own  people,  as  types 
of  the  lower-class  face,  precisely  because  of  the  preponderance 
of  the  coarser  features. 

Combined  with  the  general  type  of  face,  there  are  certain  speci- 
fied particulars  of  form  of  the  separate  parts;  as,  for  example,  in 
the  case  of  the  ellipsoid  or  ovoid  types  of  mesoprosopic  face,  which 
seem  to  have  attained  the  most  harmonic  fusion  of  characteristics, 
and  consequently  the  highest  standard  of  beauty,  the  eyes  are 
very  large  and  almond-shaped  (the  Fornarina,  Maria  Mancini, 
Cavalieri) ;  angular  faces  are  characterised  by  a  narrow,  slanting 
eye,  through  all  the  degrees  down  to  that  of  the  Mongolian;  faces 
of  low  type  have  an  eye  characterised  less  by  its  form  than  by  its 
smallness.  The  nose  also  shows  differences;  it  is  long  and  narrow 


FIG.  95. — Hexagonal  face. 


FIG.  96. — Tetragonal  face  (square). 


FIG.  97. — Faces  of  inferior  type 
(cheek  bones  prominent). 


FIG.  98. 


CRANIOLOGY  265 

(leptorrhine)  in  the  more  leptoproscopic  faces,  and  short,  broad 
and  fleshy  (platyrrhine,  flat-nosed)  in  chameprosopic  faces,  espe- 
cially in  the  lower  types;  in  mesoprosopic  faces  it  assumes  its 
proper  proportions,  and  occurs  as  the  last  detail  or  crowning 
touch  of  harmony  in  the  perfect  faces  of  the  above-mentioned 
women. 

When  one  starts  to  make  the  first  draft  of  an  ornamental  design, 
it  often  happens  that  the  proportional  relations  are  based  upon 
certain  geometric  figures  that  might  be  called  the  skeleton  of  the 
ornamental  design  that  is  being  constructed  from  them.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  an  artist  wishes  to  judge  of  the  harmony  of  pro- 
portions in  a  drawing,  a  painting,  or  a  statue,  he  often  recon- 
structs with  his  eye  a  geometrical  design  that  no  longer  exists 
in  the  finished  work,  but  that  must  have  served  in  its  construc- 
tion. In  short,  there  exist  certain  secret  guiding  lines  and  points 
which  the  eye  of  the  observer  must  learn  to  recognise,  to  trace 
and  to  judge. 

This  is  the  way  that  we  should  proceed  in  studying  the  facial 
profile. 

Let  us  take  or  assume  a  person  with  the  head  orientated  (i.e., 
with  the  occipital  point  resting  against  a  vertical  wall,  and  the 
glance  level).  The  line  uniting  the  point  of  the  tragus  (the  little 
triangular  cartilage  projecting  from  the  auricular  foramen),  with 
the  juncture  between  the  nasal  septum  and  the  upper  lip,  ought, 
in  the  case  of  an  aesthetically  regular  face,  to  be  horizontal.  We 
may  call  this  line  the  line  of  orientation.  If  it  proves  not  to  be 
horizontal,  but  oblique,  slanting  either  forward  (long  nose)  or 
backward  (short  nose),  this  in  itself  denotes  an  irregularity  which 
is  plainly  perceptible,  even  to  the  casual  observer.  But  it  is  only 
in  exceptional  cases  that  this  line  is  not  horizontal;  its  horizontality 
constitutes  the  norm,  in  our  hybrid  races. 

Naturally,  it  is  horizontal  only  when  the  head  is  orientated 
in  the  manner  above  stated.  Hence  in  normal  cases  its  hori- 
zontality is  an  index  of  the  orientation  of  the  head.  The  orientated 
head  is  perfectly  upright ;  and  the  line  in  question  marks  its  level. 

Everyone  knows  that  this  position  of  the  head  is  known  as 
that  of  '  'attention"  and  constitutes  the  position  which  formerly 
only  soldiers,  but  now  school  children  as  well,  must  assume  as  a 
sign  of  salutation  and  respect  toward  their  superiors.  It  is  also 
the  anthropologically  normal  attitude  (as  we  may  see  in  statuary). 


266  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

And  it  is  a  known  fact  that  it  is  a  position  exceedingly  difficult  to 
assume  intentionally  with  absolute  accuracy. 

In  fact,  it  corresponds  to  an  attitude  which  has  to  be  called 
forth  by  some  inward  stimulus  of  emotion,  and  for  this  reason  I 
would  call  it  the  "fundamental  psychological  line."  The  man 
who  is  conscious  of  his  own  dignity,  or  who  hopes  for  his  own  re- 
demption; the  man  who  is  free  and  independent  involuntarily 
holds  his  head  orientated. 

It  is  not  the  vain  man,  or  the  proud  man,  or  the  dreamer,  or 
the  bureaucratic  official,  whose  head  assumes  this  involuntary 
horizontal  level  that  is  characteristic  of  the  most  profound  senti- 
ments known  to  humanity;  persons  of  such  types  hold  their  heads 
slightly  raised  and  the  line  shows  a  slight  backward  slant. 

The  man  who  is  depressed  and  discouraged,  the  man  who  has 
never  had  occasion  to  feel  the  deep,  intimate  and  sacred  thrill 
of  human  dignity,  has  on  the  contrary,  a  more  or  less  forward  slant 
in  the  psychological  line  of  orientation. 

Look  at  Fig.  99,  which  shows  a  very  attractive  group  of  Ciodari 
or  Neapolitan  peasants. 

The  man,  or  rather  the  beardless  youth  who  is  just  beginning 
to  feel  himself  a  man,  and  therefore  hopes  for  independence,  holds 
his  head  proudly  level;  but  the  very  pretty  woman  seated  beside 
him  holds  her  head  gracefully  inclined  forward.  For  that  matter, 
this  is  woman's  characteristically  graceful  attitude.  She  never 
naturally  assumes,  nor  does  the  artist  ever  attribute  to  her  the 
proud  and  lofty  attitude  of  the  level  head.  But  this  graceful 
pose  is  in  reality  nothing  else  than  the  pose  of  slavery.  The 
woman  who  is  beginning  to  struggle,  the  woman  who  begins  to 
perceive  the  mysterious  and  potent  voice  of  human  conflict,  and 
enters  upon  the  infinite  world  of  modern  progress,  raises  up  her 
head — and  she  is  not  for  that  reason  any  the  less  beautiful.  Be- 
cause beauty  is  enhanced,  rather  than  taken  away,  by  this  atti- 
tude which  to-day  has  begun  to  be  assumed  by  all  humanity:  by 
the  laborer,  since  the  socialistic  propaganda,  and  by  woman  in  her 
feministic  aspirations  for  liberty. 

Similarly  in  the  school,  if  we  wish  to  induce  little  children  to 
hold  their  heads  in  the  position  of  orientation,  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  instil  into  them  a  sense  of  liberty,  of  gladness  and  of  hope. 
Whoever,  upon  entering  a  children's  class-room,  should  see  their 
heads  assume  the  level  pose  as  if  from  some  internal  stimulus  of 


FIG.  99. — A  group  of  Roman  peasants. 


CRANIOLOGY  267 

renewed  life,  could  ask  for  no  greater  homage.  This,  and  nothing 
else,  is  certainly  what  will  form  the  great  desire  of  the  teacher  of 
the  future,  who  will  rightly  despise  the  trite  and  antiquated  show 
of  formal  respect,  but  will  seek  to  touch  the  souls  of  his  pupils. 

To  return  to  our  lines,  it  follows  that  the  level  orientation 
is  the  true  human  position  for  the  head;  it  ought  never  to  be 
abased  nor  carried  loftily,  because  man  ought  never  to  make 
himself  either  slave  or  master;  it  is  the  normal  line,  because  it 
should  be  that  of  the  accustomed  attitudes;  because  man  cannot 
normally  be  perpetually  meditating,  with  his  gaze  upon  the  ground, 
as  if  forgetful  of  himself  and  of  his  social  ties;  nor  can  he  forever 
gaze  at  the  heavens,  as  though  drawn  upward  by  some  supernal 
inspiration.  The  normal  attitude  is  that  of  the  thinking  man, 
who  cannot  lean  either  in  the  one  direction  or  the  other,  because 
he  is  so  keenly  conscious  of  being  in  close  connection  with  all  sur- 
rounding humanity;  and  he  looks  with  horizontal  gaze  toward 
infinity,  as  though  studying  the  path  of  common  progress. 

Now,  if  from  the  metopic  point  of  the  forehead,  we  drop  an 
imaginary  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  orientation,  it  ought  to  form, 
in  projection,  a  tangent  to  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  nostrils. 
Observe  the  two  lines  traced  on  the  profile  of  Pauline  Borghese. 

This  line,  if  prolonged,  passes  slightly  within  the  extreme 
angle  of  the  labial  aperture,  and  forms  the  limit  of  the  chin  (see 
the  portrait  of  Cavalieri,  Fig.  101).  In  this  case  the  profile  is 
eurignathous. 

When  the  line  does  net  pass  in  the  aforesaid  manner,  but  the 
facial  profile  protrudes  beyond  it,  we  have  a  case  of  prognathism, 
which  may  be  total,  when  the  whole  face  projects;  maxillary  when 
the  mandibles  project,  nasal  when  it  is  only  the  nose  that  projects, 
and  mental  (or  progeneism)  when  it  is  only  the  chin  that  protrudes. 

Figures  98,  100  and  103  represent  forms  of  normal  prognathism 
(related  to  race,  Figs.  98,  100),  and  of  pathological  prognathism 
(Fig.  103,  form  associated  with  microcephaly).  These  two  micro- 
cephalic  profiles  call  to  mind  the  muzzle  of  an  animal;  there  is  no 
erect  forehead,  the  orbital  arch  forming  the  upward  continuance; 
the  nose  is  very  long  and  almost  horizontal  to  the  protruding  jaw; 
the  fleshy  lips  constitute  in  themselves  the  anterior  apex  of  the 
visage;  while  the  chin  recedes  far  back  beneath  them. 

But  leaving  aside  these  exceptional  profiles,  which  serve  by 
their  very  exaggeration  to  fix  our  conception  of  prognathism,  let 


2(iS 


us  examine  the  series  of  profiles  in  Fig.  100,  which  include  some 
forms  more  or  less  peculiar,  and  others  that  are  more  or  less  custo- 
mary, of  prognathism;  forms  that  serve  to  characterise  the 
physiognomy. 


7       8        ? 

FIG.  100. — (1)  Orthognathous  face;  (2)  prognathism  limited  to  the  nasal  region;  (3) 
prognathism  limited  to  the  sub-nasal  region;  (4)  total  prognathism,  including  the  three 
regions,  supra-nasal,  nasal  and  sub-nasal;  (5)  exaggerated  total  prognathism,  accompanied 
by  mandibular  prognathism;  (6)  the  same  in  a  child;  (7)  very  marked  prognathism,  but  due 
entirely  to  the  prominence  of  the  supra-nasal  section,  resulting  in  an  apparent  orthog- 
nathism  (male  of  tall  stature) ;  (8)  opposite  type  to  the  preceding:  pronounced  prognathism 
not  extending  to  the  supra-nasal  region  (feminine  type) ;  (9)  misunderstood  Greek  profile 
(incorrect)  resulting  in  a  notable  prognathism;  (10)  correct  Greek  profile,  i.e.,  conforming 
to  that  of  Greek  statues,  and  incompatible  with  prognathism.* 

Manouvrier,  analysing  the  forms  of  prognathism  from  the  point  of  view  of 
physiognomy  and  cerebral  development,  notes  that  varieties  4  and  5  seem  to  him 
to  correspond  to  a  more  or  less  serious  cerebral  development;  variety  2,  very 
frequent  in  France  and  more  particularly,  according  to  the  author,  among  the 
Jews,  is  not  incompatible  with  a  high  cerebral  inferiority.  Variety  3,  more 
frequent  in  the  feminine  sex,  is  found  in  conjunction,  sometimes  with  a  weakly 
skeletal  system,  and  frequently  with  rickets  and  cretinism;  nevertheless,  Beeth- 
oven showed  an  approach  to  this  profile. 

Variety  4  indicates  on  the  contrary  an  extremely  vigorous  development  of 
the  skeleton,  with  the  qualities  and  defects  commonly  associated  with  great 
physical  strength;  variety  7  is  regularly  associated  with  tall  stature;  in  fact,  in 
this  case  the  prognathism  is  determined  by  excessive  development  of  the  frontal 
bone-sockets. 

It  is  this  development,  prevalent  in  the  male  sex,  that  renders  sub-nasal 
prognathism  much  rarer  in  man.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  feminine  type  of 
prognathism  shown  in  No.  8  is  not  greater  in  degree  than  the  male  type,  No.  7. 
Variety  9  shows  us  a  form  of  prognathism  in  art,  due  to  a  false  interpretation  of 
the  Greek  profile;  it  is  commonly  believed  that  in  the  Greek  profile  the  frontal 
line  is  a  continuation  of  that  along  the  bridge  of  the  nose,  and  hence  we  frequently 
meet  with  commemorative  medals,  etc.,  bearing  the  monstrous  profile  shown  in 
No.  9,  with  pronounced  prognathism  and  receding  forehead.  The  true  Greek 
profile  is  shown  in  No.  19,  but  we  can  better  analyse  it  by  studying  the  profile 
of  the  Discobolus  (Fig.  105)  and  of  Antinoous  (Fig.  106). 

*  The  above  elucidation  and  illustrations  of  the  face  are  taken  from  MANOUVRIER, 
Cephalometrie  Anthropologique. 


FIG.  101. 


FIG.  102. — Head  of  Pauline  Bonaparte  Borghese  (Rome,  Borghese  Museum). 


FIG.  103. — Profiles  of  microcephalies. 


CRANIOLOGY 


269 


The  lines  of  the  facial  angle  have  been  traced  upon  the  profile  of  the  Discobolus, 
but  the  profile  of  Antinoous  has  been  left  untouched,  in  order  that  we  may  trace 
the  same  lines  upon  it  in  imagination,  and  thus  judge  of  its  perfect  beauty  (facing 
page  270). 

Let  us  first  examine  these  two  Greek  profiles,  without  stopping  to  analyse 
their  separate  characteristics,  but  considering  them  from  the  more  general  point 
of  view  of  the  facial  profile  in  general.  Reverting,  instead,  for  our  analytical 
study  to  the  schematic  figure  shown  in  Fig.  104,  we  see  that  it  also  shows  the  line 
of  the  facial  profile,  that  of  orientation  and  the  vertical,  and  that  these  lines  form 
certain  right-angled  triangles;  the  right  angle  MPA  is  not  the  facial  angle,  any 
more  than  the  corresponding  angle  shown  in  the  Discobolus  is  the  facial  angle. 
It  is  said  that  Greek  art  considered  the  right  angle  as  the  perfect  facial  angle; 
but  that  is  not  true.  In  order  to  obtain  the  facial  angle  it  is  necessary  to  draw  a 
third  line  (MS)  which  extends  from  the  metopic  point  to  the  point  of  attach- 
ment of  the  nasal  septum  to  the  upper  lip;  this  is  the  line  of  the  facial  profile, 
and  the  angle  MSA  is  the  facial  angle.  It  is  never  a  right  angle  (see  the  Dis- 
cobolus), but  it  approaches  very  closely  to  a  right  angle.  Let  us  examine  the 
triangle  MPS,  bounded  by  the  ver-  ^ 

tical,  the  line  of  profile  and  the  line 
of  orientation;  it  is  right-angled  at 
P.  Hence,  the  sum  of  its  other 
two  angles  must  be  equal  to  one 
right  angle;  but  the  upper  angle, 
corresponding  to  the  nasal  aperture, 
is  of  only  15°,  and  consequently  the 
facial  angle  is  75°.  The  facial 
angle  of  the  Discobolus  also,  like 
that  of  Antinoous,  like  that  of  the 
normal  human  visage,  is  75°. 

Examine  further  this  Fig.  104;  in 
it  the  line  of  the  facial  profile,  ex- 
tending from  the  metopion  to  the 
septo-labial  point  also  passes  through 
the  point  corresponding  to  the  at- 
tachment of  the  base  of  the  nose 
(nasion). 

The    figure    is    schematic;    but 
anyone  who  will  trace  it  in  imagi- 
nation upon  the  profile  of  Cavalieri,  FlG   104 
or  on  that  of  the  seated  woman  in 

the  group  of  Neopolitan  peasants,  or  on  any  of  the  classic  profiles  known  in  art 
as  the  Roman  profile,  will  find  that  the  nasal  line,  connecting  the  supra-  and 
sub-nasal  points,  coincides  with  the  line  drawn  from  the  sub-nasal  point  to  the 
metopion.  But  if  we  observe  the  Greek  profile  of  the  Discobolus,  we  shall 
find  that  the  line  of  profile  does  not  coincide  with  the  base  of  the  nose,  but 
passes  behind  it. 

This  is  the  real  characteristic  difference  between  the  Roman  and  the  Greek 
profile:  in  the  Greek  profile,  the  root  of  the  nose  is  attached  further  in  front  of 

18 


270  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  metopico-subnasal  line,  and  this  is  due  to  the  special  form  of  the  Greek  fore- 
head, which,  instead  of  being  slightly  flattened  at  the  glabella,  as  in  the  equally 
beautiful  Roman  forehead',  is  rounded  to  such  a  degree  that  the  transverse  section 
of  the  forehead  follows  a  circular  line.  Hence,  it  results  that  the  metopic  region 
of  the  forehead  is  more  prominent  and  the  nose  straight,  and  hence  also  the  line 
of  the  forehead  is  a  perceptible  continuation  of  that  of  the  nose  (compare  the 
Antinoous).  This  unique  and  essential  difference  between  the  Greek  and  the 
Roman  profile  has  not  hitherto  been  pointed  out,  so  far  as  I  am  aware;  it  is  indi- 
cated by  just  one  of  the  facial  lines,  the  one  which  forms  an  angle  of  75°  with  the 
line  of  orientation.  I  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  these  differences  in  my  study 
of  the  women  of  Latium,  which  I  pursued  side  by  side  with  a  study  of  the  statues 
in  the  museums  of  Rome,  under  the  guidance  of  distinguished  art  specialists; 
nevertheless,  they  had  none  of  them  ever  defined  by  mathematical  lines  the  sole 
difference  between  the  two  classic  types. 

The  habit  of  tracing  these  imaginary  lines  renders  us  far  more  keen  in  recog- 
nising any  and  every  degree  of  prognathism,  even  the  least  perceptible,  and  any 
other  imperfection  of  the  profile,  than  the  most  complicated  system  of  goniometry 
would  make  us.  For  instance,  examine  the  profile  of  Pauline  Borghese;  it  is 
certainly  not  prognathous,  since  the  vertical  line  reveals  a  most  impeccable 
orthognathism.  But  let  us  trace  the  nasal  line:  it  meets  the  vertical  line  before 
reaching  the  metopic  point;  in  order  to  meet  it  at  this  point,  the  nose  would  have 
had  to  be  narrower  from  front  to  back;  in  that  case  the  profile  of  Pauline  Borghese 
would  have  been  a  perfect  Roman  profile;  but  the  imperial  stigma  of  the  Napo- 
leonic house  deprived  the  beautiful  princess  of  the  privilege  of  perfect  classic 
beauty. 

In  my  studies  of  the  women  of  Latium,  in  addition  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
forms  of  profile  which  are  very  frequent  (the  former  distinguished  by  the  morpho- 
logical peculiarity  of  having  no  definite  naso-frontal  angle  nor  metopic  flattening 
of  the  forehead)  I  found  a  third  profile,  less  frequent  yet  quite  characteristic, 
among  the  representatives  of  the  Mediterranean  (Eurafrican)  race.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  (Figs.  107,  108). 

First  of  all,  the  forehead  has  a  slight  transverse  depression  along  its  middle 
line,  and  the  mandible  is  slightly  elongated;  but  if  we  draw  our  imaginary  vertical 
line  from  the  extreme  forward  point  of  the  brow,  we  find  that  none  of  the  forms 
of  prognathism  is  involved,  and  that  the  auriculo-subnasal  line  is  horizontal. 
This  is  the  type  that  has  been  described  by  Sergi  as  Egyptian;  and  the  young 
woman,  shown  in  profile,  really  does  suggest  a  reincarnation  of  the  proud  beauty 
of  the  daughters  of  Pharoah;  the  somewhat  fleshy  lips  and  the  form  of  the  eyes, 
not  almond-like,  but  very  wide  and  horizontal,  complete  the  characteristics  of 
the  type  immortalised  in  Egyptian  art. 

In  the  normal  profile  two  forms  can  be  distinguished  which  are  associated  with 
the  two  general  forms  of  leptoprosopic  and  chameprosopic  face,  and  hence  also 
with  the  dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  forms  of  cranium.  In  the  one  case, 
the  features  are  more  elongated  and  seem  to  be  more  depressed  laterally,  with  the 
result  that  the  profile  is  more  refined,  the  visage  narrower,  along  the  longitudinal 
line;  in  this  case  the  profile  is  proopic  (as,  for  example,  in  the  aforesaid  Egyptian 
profile  and  in  the  elongated  ovoidal  English  face,  Fig.  90);  aristocratic  faces  of 


FIG.  105. — The  Discobolus    by  Miron  FIG.  106. — Head  of  statue  known  as  the 

(Rome,  Vatican  Museum).  Capitoline    Antinoous   (Rome,      Capitoline 

Museum). 


FIG.  107. 


FIG.  108. 


CRANIOLOGY  271 

the  finer  type  are  proopic.  On  the  other  hand,  broad  faces  are  anteriorly  flat- 
tened to  such  an  extent  that  the  flatness  shows  even  in  the  profile :  platyopic 
profile. 

These  general  forms  are  associated  with  certain  special  forms  of  the 
separate  organs. 

Thus,  for  example,  in  proopic  faces  the  palate  is  narrow,  long  and  high;  in 
platyopic  faces,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  broad,  low  and  flat;  and  the  teeth  corre- 
sponding to  them  may  present  a  widely  different  appearance  (long,  narrow  teeth ; 
broad  teeth). 

Low  Types  and  Abnormal  Forms. — Low  types,  as  we  have  already  noted, 
depend  upon  the  development  of  the  face  in  its  least  noble  parts  (those  of  masti- 
cation) ;  prominence  of  the  cheek-bones  and  maxillary  angles,  great  development  of 
the  upper  and  lower  jaw  (prognathism).  These  conditions  are  frequently  accom- 
panied by  alow,  narrow,  or  receding  forehead,  indicating  a  scanty  cerebral  develop- 
ment. Lombroso  found  a  great  prevalence  of  similar  forms  among  criminals; 
but  recent  studies  have  disclosed  the  fact  that  such  forms  of  facial  development 
are  in  some  way  related  to  the  environment  in  which  the  individual  has  developed, 
so  much  so  that,  on  the  basis  of  these  morphological  characteristics,  we  might 
almost  succeed  in  delineating  the  physiognomies  distinguishing  the  different 
social  castes.  In  fact,  while  the  aristocratic  face  is  ellipsoidal  and  proopic,  that 
of  the  peasant  is  characterised  by  a  pronounced  wideness  between  the  cheek- 
bones, and  that  of  the  city  labourer  by  a  peculiar  development  in  the  height  of 
the  mandible.  Thus  the  peasant  has  a  broad  face,  and  the  city  workman  a 
somewhat  elongated  face,  with  very  pronounced  maxillary  angles. 

A  real  and  important  abnormality  which  indicates  a  deviation  from  every 
type  of  race  or  caste  is  facial  asymmetry  or  plagioprosopy,  analogous  to  plagioce- 
phaly,  and  frequently  associated  with  it. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  in  the  case  of  the  face,  to  distinguish  instances  of 
functional  asymmetry,  due  to  unequal  innervation  of  the  muscles  in  the  two  sides 
of  the  face;  either  from  some  cerebral  cause,  or  from  some  local  cause  affecting 
the  facial  nerves.  In  such  cases,  the  trophic  state  of  the  muscles  and  their  con- 
tractibility  being  unequal,  there  is  a  resultant  asymmetry,  especially  evident  in 
the  play  of  facial  expression. 

This  form  of  asymmetry  must  necessarily  be  limited  to  the  soft  tissues  and 
be  due  to  a  pathological  cause;  consequently  it  should  not  be  confounded  with 
the  asymmetry  due  to  a  different  skeletal  development  of  the  two  sides  of  the  face, 
an  abnormality  analogous  to  plagiocephaly,  which  is  met  with  among  degener- 
ates as  a  stigma  of  congenital  malformation.  We  owe  to  Brugia  a  most  admir- 
able method  for  demonstrating  the  high  degrees  of  facial  asymmetry  which  some- 
times reach  such  an  extreme  point  as  to  give  the  two  halves  the  appearance  of 
having  formed  parts  of  two  different  faces.  This  is  precisely  what  Brugia  shows 
by  the  aid  of  photography,  uniting  each  half  with  a  reversed  print  of  itself,  making 
the  two  prints  coincide  along  the  median  line.  The  result  is  that  every  asym- 
metric face  gives  two  other  faces  formed  respectively  from  one  of  the  two  inequal 
halves,  and  presenting  profoundly  different  aspects. 

Other  abnormalities  are  revealed  by  the  facial  profile.  They  are  due  either 
to  total  or  partial  prognathism  (already  analysed),  or  to  orthognathism,  where 


272  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  facial  angle  equals  or  exceeds  a  right  angle;  such  a  profile  occurs  in  cases  of 
hydrocephaly  or  of  macrocephaly  in  general,  usually  resulting  from  infantile  arrest 
of  development. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Face. — The  human  countenance,  that  is  so  marvellously 
beautiful  in  our  superior  hybrid  races,  passes,  during  its  embryonal  life,  through 
many  forms  that  are  very  far  removed  from  such  perfection. 

Figures  110,  111,  and  112  represent  the  evolution  of  the  face  in  animals  and  in 
man :  and  the  complete  evolution  of  a  woman's  face  from  the  embryo  during  the 
first  weeks  of  its  formation  to  the  attainment  of  old  age. 

The  embryonal  face,  as  may  be  seen  even  better  in  animals  than  in  man,  is 
surmounted  by  the  brain  divided  and  differentiated  into  its  superimposed  prim- 
itive vesicles;  furthermore,  it  consists  of  one  single,  widespread  cavity,  at  the 
sides  of  which  may  be  discerned  two  diminutive  vesicles  or  bulbs,  which  are  off- 
shoots of  the  brain  and  constitute  the  first  rudiments  of  the  eyes.  In  studying 
a  more  advanced  stage  of  development,  we  may  note  in  what  constitutes  the  upper 
lip  of  this  wide  facial  cavity,  two  nasal  ducts  or  furrows,  which  are  the  first  indi- 
cations of  the  nose. 

The  principal  differentiation  which  takes  place  in  the  face  consists  of  the 
development  from  its  two  lateral  walls  on  left  and  right,  of  two  thin  plates  or 
laminae  that  advance  across  the  cavity  itself,  in  its  anterior  portion,  and  proceed 
to  unite  in  a  median  ridge,  the  raphe  palati;  this  constitutes  the  formation  of  the 
palatine  vault,  which  is  destined  permanently  to  divide  the  single  cavity  into  two 
cavities — an  upper  or  nasal,  and  a  lower  or  buccal  cavity.  If  this  process  of  forma- 
tion is  not  completed,  the  result  is  a  grave  abnormality,  the  cleft  palate,  popularly 
known  in  Italy  as  a  "wolf's  throat,"  and  consisting  in  the  fact  that  the  nasal 
and  buccal  cavities  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  open  into  each  other;  this  abnormal- 
ity, due  to  an  arrest  of  embryonic  development,  is  almost  always  accompanied 
by  a  hare-lip. 

Simultaneously  with  the  formation  of  the  palatine  vault,  another  and  vertical 
septum  is  formed,  which  divides  the  upper  cavity  into  two  halves,  right  and  left. 
This  division,  however,  is  limited  to  the  anterior  portion;  the  three  cavities  thus 
formed  have  no  such  division  in  the  rear,  but  all  three  open  into  the  gullet  or 
oesophagus,  which  represents  the  only  relic  of  the  single  original  cavity. 

The  maxillary  bones  are  formed  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  of  the  nasal 
and  palatal  septa,  through  extroversions  destined  to  become  ossified. 

It  is  not  until  later  that  the  external,  nose  is  formed  (middle  of  the  second 
month  of  embryonal  life). 

After  this,  the  evolution  of  the  embryo  becomes  evidently  a  perfectionment 
and  a  growth,  rather  than  a  transformation. 

In  the  new-born  child  the  face  is  extremely  small  in  comparison  with  the 
cerebral  cranium. 

If  we  compare  the  head  of  an  adult  with  that  of  an  infant,  and  draw  the 
well-known  line  of  separation  between  the  facial  and  the  cerebral  cranium,  the 
difference  hi  the  reciprocal  proportions  between  the  two  parts  at  once  becomes 
apparent.  The  infant's  face  seems  like  a  mere  appendix  to  its  cranium;  and  the 
mandible  is  especially  small ;  in  fact,  very  young  children  remain  much  of  the  time 
with  their  mouth  open  and  the  under  lip  drawn  back  behind  the  upper. 


FIG.  109. — Face  of  inferior  type. 
Prominence  of  angles  of  jaw  (Gonia). 


FIG.  110. 


m- 


Sll 


Kll 


ran 


FIG.  111.  FIG.  112. 

a,  eye;  v,  anterior  brain;  m,  middle  brain;  s,  frontal  process;  h,  nasal  septum; 
o,  u,  h,  d,  r,  primitive  embryonal  formations,  explained  as  being  branchial  (i.  e.,  gill) 
arches;  z,  tongue;  g,  auditory  fissure.  Note  the  analogy  between  the  different  parts 
of  the  head  in  animals  and  in  man;  every  species,  however,  has  special  embryonal 
characteristics. 


CRANIOLOGY  273 

Consequently,  the  growth  of  the  face  obeys  laws  and  rhythms  differing  from 
those  of  the  cranium,  in  comparison  to  which  the  face  is  destined  to  assume  very 
different  proportions  by  the  time  that  the  adult  age  is  reached.  The  face  grows 
much  more  than  the  cranium. 

In  its  characteristic  infantile  form,  the  face  is  quite  round  (short  and  broad), 
and,  when  the  child  is  plump,  it  often  happens  that  at  birth  the  face  is  broader 
than  it  is  long.  Seen  in  profile  it  is  orthognathous,  and  this  orthognathism  en- 
dures throughout  early  infancy,  because  the  profile  still  remains  in  retreat  be- 
hind the  plane  of  the  protruding  forehead;  i.e.,  the  facial  angle  exceeds  a  right 
angle,  and  the  mandibular  region  is  further  back  than  the  nasal  (compare  pro- 
file of  infant). 

In  the  course  of  growth  it  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  that  the  facial 
index  diminishes ;  that  is,  the  numerical  proportion  between  width  and  height 
becomes  lowered  as  the  face  lengthens;  while  the  facial  angle  changes  from 
somewhat  more  than  a  right  angle  to  a  right  angle,  and  finally  to  an  acute 
angle  of  75°. 

In  order  to  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  the  transformations  of  the  face,  children 
should  have  their  pictures  taken,  full  face  and  profile,  on  every  birth-day,  as  is 
already  customary  in  England  for  the   purposes  of  the  carnet  maternel,  the 
"mother's  note-book." 

In  the  illustrations  facing  this  page  we  have  portraits  of  the  same  person  taken 
at  successive  ages  (Figs.  113,  114,  115,  116),  i.e.,  at  the  age  of  six  months,  one 
year  and  a  half,  seven,  and  lastly  twelve  years ;  it  will  be  seen  that  the  face  has 
steadily  lengthened. 

In  this  case  the  individual  happens  to  be  noticeably  leptoprosopic ;  but  observe 
the  rotundity  of  the  infantile  face  at  the  age  of  six  months. 

An  analogous  observation  may  be  made  in  the  case  of  the  girl  represented  in 
Figs.  118  and  119,  at  the  age  of  ten  months  and  thirteen  years  respectively. 

Even  in  the  case  of  abnormal  children  the  same  law  holds  good;  an  examina- 
tion of  the  three  pictures  of  an  incurable  idiot  boy,  taken  at  the  ages  of  six,  eleven, 
and  sixteen  years  (Figs.  121,  122,  123  facing  page  276),  shows  that  the  face,  from 
being  originally  rotund  has  become  elongated.* 

We  owe  to  Binet  the  most  exact  and  complete  studies  that  exist  in  anthropo- 
logic  literature  on  the  subject  of  the  growth  of  the  face.  He  has  made  a  great 
number  of  facial  measurements,  both  of  children  and  young  persons  of  the  male 
sex,  from  four  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  taking  the  measurements  at  intervals 
of  two  years.  The  measurements  chosen  by  Binet  are  all  the  possible  distances 
that  will  serve  to  give  the  various  widths  of  the  face,  the  distance  of  the  ear  from 
the  various  points  of  the  profile,  and  the  heights  of  the  various  segments;  namely 
(for  an  exact  understanding  of  these  measurements,  see  section  on  Technique), 
auriculo-mental  diameter,  auriculo-nasal  diameter,  auriculo-subnasal  diameter, 
auriculo-ophryac  diameter,  auriculo-metopic  diameter,  frontal  diameter,  bi- 
auricular diameter,  bizygomatic  diameter,  length  of  nose,  length  of  chin,  subnaso- 
mental  distance,  height  of  forehead. f 

*  From  THULIE,  Le  Dressage  des  jeunes  d6gtn6r6s,  page  633. 

t  BINET,  Le  croissance  du  crane  et  de  la  face  chez  les  normaux  entre  4  et  18  ana. 


274  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Binet's  conclusions  are  as  follows:  the  growth  of  the  whole 
head  may  be  divided  into  three  rhythms:  that  of  the  cerebral 
cranium,  that  of  the  face  apart  from  the  nose,  and  that  of  the  nose. 

If  the  total  development  of  the  cerebral  cranium  from  the  fourth 
to  the  eighteenth  year  shows  a  proportion  of  12  per  cent.,  the  facial 
development  shows  an  increase  of  24  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  nose 
39  per  cent.  Consequently  the  face  increases  twice  as  much  as 
the  cranium,  and  the  nose  three  times  as  much.  In  the  growth  of 
the  face,  however,  the  transverse  dimensions  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  longitudinal  dimensions,  because  the  facial  index 
varies  greatly  according  to  the  age.  The  width  of  the  face  follows 
very  nearly  the  same  rhythm  as  the  cranium,  never  exceeding  the 
latter' s  proportional  increase;  the  length  of  the  face,  on  the  con- 
trary, follows  the  special  rhythm  of  the  growth  of  the  face,  which 
lengthens  far  more  than  it  broadens. 

If  we  consider  the  distances  of  the  various  points  in  the  profile 
from  the  auricular  foramen,  we  find  that  these  distances  show  a 
greater  increase  in  proportion  as  the  points  in  question  are  further 
from  the  forehead  and  nearer  to  the  chin. 

The  central  section  (the  nose)  and  the  mandible  are  the  por- 
tions which  contribute  most  largely  to  the  increase  in  length  of  the 
face. 

While  in  the  case  of  the  cranium  there  is  a  very  slight,  and  often 
imperceptible  puberal  acceleration  of  growth,  the  puberal  trans- 
formations of  the  head  are,  on  the  contrary,  most  notable  in  respect 
to  the  face. 

The  entire  region  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  but  more  espe- 
cially the  lower,  undergoes  a  maximum  increase  during  the  period 
of  puberty. 

In  regard  to  the  nose,  its  rapid  growth  begins  at  the  time  im- 
mediately preceding  puberty;  that  is,  it  undergoes  a  prepuberal 
maximum  increase.  When  a  boy  is  about  to  complete  his  sexual 
development,  the  nose  begins  to  gain  in  size. 

The  puberal  growth  of  the  mandible  has  long  been  a  familiar 
fact,  and  bears  a  relation  to  the  development  of  the  sexual  glands. 

A  special  characteristic  noted  by  Binet  and  by  myself  is  that 
the  height  of  the  lower  jaw  in  boys  who  have  reached  the  pre- 
puberal stage  is  greater  in  the  boys  who  are  least  intelligent;  just 
as  in  the  case  of  these  boys  the  nose  is  less  leptorrhine  and  the  face 
less  broad.  This  means  that  at  the  period  of  puberty  the  most 


FIG.  113. — A  child  at  six  months.  FIG.  114. — The  same  child  at  a  year  and  a  half. 


FIG.  115. — A  seven-year-old  boy. 


FIG.  116. — The  same  boy  at  the 
age  of  twelve. 


CRANIOLOGY 


275 


intelligent  boys  not  only  have  a  greater  development  of  head,  but 
also  certain  distinctive  facial  characteristics.  They  should  have, 
for  instance,  a  more  ample  forehead,  a  broader  face,  especially  in 
the  bizygomatic  diameter  (between  the  cheek-bones),  and  a  leptor- 
rhine  nose  (infantile  leptorrhine  type).  The  backward  boys,  on 
the  contrary,  have  a  longer  face,  accompanied  by  a  higher  mandible 
and  a  flat  or  "snub"  nose.  Here  are  the  comparative  figures: 

FACIAL  MEASUREMENTS 

Binet Children  from  the  elementary  schools  of  Paris  from  11  to  13  years  of  age 

Montessori.  .  Children  from  the  elementary  schools  of  Rome  from  9  to  11  years  of  age 


Measurements 

Binet's  figures 

Montessori's  figures 

Brightest 
pupils 

Back- 
ward 
pupils 

Differ- 
ence 

Brightest 
pupils 

Back- 
ward 
pupils 

Differ- 
ence 

Minimum  frontal  diameter 
Height  of  forehead  

104 
46 
62 
124.8 
93.5 

102 
45.5 
64.6 
122.9 
92.1 

2 
0.5 
2.4 
1.9 

1.4 

99 
57 
54 
109 

87 

98 
56 
56 
107 

86 

1 
1 
2 
2 
1 

Mento-subnasal  distance  .  . 
Bizygomatic  diameter 

Bigoniac  diameter.    . 

COMPARATIVE  FACIAL   MEASUREMENTS  OBTAINED  FROM   THE 

BRIGHTEST  AND  THE  MOST  BACKWARD  PUPILS  IN  THE 

SCHOOLS  OF  ROME  (MONTESSORI) 


Measurements  and  indices 
in  millimetres 

Brightest 
pupils 

Backward 
pupils 

Difference 

Height  of  mandible     

34  mm. 

36  mm. 

2  mm. 

Length  of  nose  

47  mm. 

45  mm. 

2  mm. 

Width  of  nose  

28  mm. 

29  mm. 

1  mm. 

Nasal  index  

59  mm. 

64  mm. 

5  mm. 

These  results  would  seem  to  prove  that  there  are  high  and  low 
infantile  types  of  face,  analogous,  let  us  say,  to  types  of  social 
caste;  and  in  school  life  they  correspond  to  the  castes  of  the 
intelligent  and  the  backward  pupils. 

Intelligent  children  tend  to  preserve  the  infantile  form  of  face 
more  intact  (broad  and  short)  or  rather,  if  we  extend  our  researches 


276  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

to  pupils  who  have  reached  the  pre-puberal  age,  we  may  conclude 
that  intelligent  pupils  develop  according  to  the  normal  laws — the 
growth  is  confined  to  the  nose;  backward  children  invert  the  order 
of  growth — the  lower  jaw  is  already  enlarged  before  the  nose  has 
even  begun  the  acceleration  of  puberal  growth.  This  difference 
remains  permanent  in  the  adult,  and  we  have  in  consequence  low 
types  of  face  characterised  by  a  flat  nose  and  heavy  lower  jaw. 

Facial  Expression. — The  study  of  the  human  face  cannot  be 
limited  to  a  consideration  of  the  form  alone;  because  what  gives 
character  to  it  is  the  expression.  Internal  thought,  sensory  im- 
pressions and  all  the  various  emotions  produce  responsive  move- 
ments of  the  facial  muscles,  whose  contractions  determine  those 
visible  phenomena  corresponding  to  the  inner  state  of  mind. 

The  teacher  ought  to  understand  facial  expression,  just  as  a 
physician  must  train  himself  to  recognise  the  fades  corresponding 
to  various  diseases  and  states  of  suffering.  The  study  of  expres- 
sion ought  to  form  a  part  of  the  study  of  psychology,  but  it  also 
comes  within  the  province  of  anthropology,  because  the  habitual, 
life-long  expressions  of  the  face  determine  the  wrinkles  of  old  age, 
which  are  distinctly  an  anthropological  characteristic. 

The  facial  muscles  may  be  divided  into  two  zones :  one  of  which 
comprises  the  frontal  and  ocular  region,  and  the  other  the  buccal 
region;  corresponding  to  which  are  the  two  upper  and  lower 
branches  of  the  frontal  nerve. 

Accordingly  we  may  speak  of  a  frontal  or  higher  zone  of  ex- 
pression and  of  an  oral  or  lower  zone. 

The  expressions  of  pure  thought  (attention,  reflection)  group 
themselves  around  the  forehead;  those  of  emotion,  on  the  contrary, 
call  forth  a  combined  action  of  both  zones,  and  frequently  irradiate 
over  the  entire  body.  But  as  a  general  rule  the  man  of  higher 
intelligence  has  a  greater  intensity  of  frontal  expression,  and  the 
man  of  low  intelligence  (uneducated  men,  peasants,  and  to  a  much 
greater  degree,  imbeciles,  idiots,  etc.)  have  a  predominance  of 
oral  expression. 

In  children  the  frontal  zone  has  slight  mobility,  and  the  oral 
zone  has  a  preponderance  of  expression;  infantile  expression,  how- 
ever, is  diffuse  and  exaggerated  and  is  characterised  by  grimaces. 
Undoubtedly  there  are  certain  restraining  powers,  which  develop 
in  the  course  of  time  and  serve  to  limit  and  definitely  determine 
the  facial  expressions. 


FIG.  117. — Profile  of  a  child. 


FIG. — 118.  A  child  of  ten  months. 


FIG.  119. — The  same,  13  years  old. 


CRANIOLOGY 


277 


As  for  the  mechanics  of  expression,  they  consist  of  the  facial  nerve,  and  the 
surface  muscles  stimulated  by  it,  which  are:  the  frontal  muscle,  which  covers  the 
entire  forehead  and  merges  above  into  the  epicranial  aponeurosis;  the  superciliary 
muscle  extending  transversely  along  the  superciliary  arch  and  concealed  by  the 
orbicular  muscle  of  the  eyelids  (m.  orbicularis  palpebrarum) ,  which  surrounds 
the  eye-socket  like  a  ring;  the  pyramidal  muscle  (m.  pyramidalis  nasi),  which  is 
connected  with  the  point  of  origin  of  the  frontal  muscle  at  the  inner  angle  of  the 
eyebrow,  and  separates  below  into  four  symmetrical  fasciae,  two  of  which  are 
attached  to  the  ala  or  wing  of  the  nose,  and  the  other  two  to  the  upper  lip. 


FIG.  120. — The  Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Face. 

A  group  of  very  delicate  muscles  controlling  the  sensitive  movements  of  the 
wings  and  septum  of  the  nose  (m.  compressor  narium,  m.  depressor  ala  nasi,  m. 
levator  alee  nasi,  anterior  and  posterior,  and  m.  depressor  septi)  have  their  points 
of  attachment  around  the  nasal  alee  (just  above  the  upper  incisor  and  canine 
teeth).  There  is  a  great  wealth  of  muscles  surrounding  the  mouth;  no  animal, 
not  even  the  anthropoid  ape,  is  equipped  with  so  many  muscles ;  it  is  due  to  them 
that  the  human  mouth  is  able  to  assume  such  a  great  variety  of  positions.  The 


278  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

greater  number  of  these  muscles  are  arranged  like  radii  around  the  mouth;  and 
there  is  one  which,  unlike  the  rest,  surrounds  the  oral  aperture  like  a  ring. 

The  radiating  muscles,  descending  from  the  sides  of  the  nose  down  along  the 
chin  are:  the  levator  muscle  of  the  upper  lip  (m.  levator  labii  superioris,  starting 
from  the  bony  margin  below  the  infraorbital  foramen) ;  the  levator  muscle  of  the 
angle  of  the  mouth  (m.  levator  anguli  oris,  starting  from  the  fossa  of  the  upper 
maxilla) ;  the  large  and  small  zygomatic  muscles  (starting  from  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  malar  bones) ;  the  risorial  muscle  (m.  risorius),  the  smallest  of  all  the 
facial  muscles,  which  has  its  origin  in  the  soft  surface  tissues  (aponeurosis  paro- 
tido-masseterica) ;  the  depressor  muscle  of  the  mouth  angle  (m.  depressor  anguli 
oris,  or  m.  triangularis)  originating  on  the  lower  margin  of  the  maxilla;  the  de- 
pressor muscle  of  the  lower  lip  or  quadratus  muscle  of  the  chin  (m.  quadratus  labii 
inferioris  or  quadratus  menti,  also  originating  on  the  lower  maxilla);  the  levator 
muscle  of  the  chin  (m.  levator  menti)  between  the  two  musculi  quadrati,  also  has 
its  origin  in  the  lower  maxilla;  the  buccinator  muscle,  hidden  beneath  the  pre- 
ceding, has  its  origin  behind  the  molar  teeth  in  the  alveolar  process  of  the  two 
maxillae,  and  extends  horizontally,  terminating  in  the  two  lips,  in  such  a  manner 
that  its  two  fasciae  partly  cross,  so  that  the  upper  fasciae  of  the  muscle  starting 
from  the  mandible  extend  to  the  upper  lip,  and  the  lower  fasciae  of  the  muscle 
starting  from  the  maxilla  extend  to  the  lower  lip.  Consequently  the  contrac- 
tion of  this  muscle  stretches  the  angles  of  the  mouth  in  a  horizontal  direction  only; 
it  is  the  most  voluntary  of  all  the  muscles,  and  plays  a  greater  part  than  the  others 
in  forced  laughter;  in  consequence  it  robs  this  movement  of  its  characteristic 
charm. 

Lastly  we  must  note  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  lips  (m.  orbicularis  oris  or 
sphincter  oris),  which  constitutes  the  fleshy  part  of  the  lips  and  surrounds  the  oral 
aperture  like  a  ring. 

The  contraction  of  these  muscles  produces  antagonistic  motorial  action;  for 
instance,  the  orbicular  muscle  tends  to  close  the  mouth  into  a  circular  orifice;  the 
various  muscles  which  radiate  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  (especially  the  buc- 
cinator) tend,  on  the  contrary,  to  enlarge  and  stretch  it  in  a  transverse  direction; 
certain  muscles  tend  to  raise  the  mouth,  and  others  to  lower  it.  Accordingly, 
there  results  a  play  between  the  muscles  of  expression  and  upon  their  continual 
antagonism  depend  the  changing  expressions  of  the  human  countenance. 

Here  are  a  few  of  the  principal  facial  expressions,  described  in 
a  masterly  manner,  and  for  the  first  time,  by  Charles  Darwin  :* 

Expression  of  Sorrow. — The  muscles  that  are  principally 
brought  into  play  are  the  superciliary,  the  frontal  and  the  trian- 
gular or  depressor  muscles  of  the  lips;  the  eyebrows  are  furrowed, 
being  drawn  upward  by  the  action  of  the  frontal  muscle;  this,  how- 
ever, cannot  contract  completely  because  drawn  downward  later- 
ally by  the  superciliary  muscles,  and  hence  the  forehead  wrinkles 
only  at  its  middle  point  and  together  with  the  slanting  eyebrows 
assumes  a  shape  that  suggests  three  sides  of  a  quadrilateral. 

*  CHARLES  DARWIN,  The  Expression  of  Emotions  in  Man  and  Animals, 


CRANIOLOGY  279 

Simultaneously  there  is  a  drooping  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
which,  when  exaggerated  in  infancy,  forms  the  characteristic  and 
charming  grimace  of  a  child  who  is  on  the  point  of  crying.  Accord- 
ingly, sorrow  draws  the  frontal  zone  upward,  and  the  labial  zone 
downward;  in  other  words,  it  lengthens  the  face. 

Expression  of  Pleasure. — On  the  contrary,  laughter  and  happi- 
ness shorten  the  face;  all  the  muscles  are  brought  into  play  that 
stretch  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  as  well  as  those  which  raise  the 
upper  lip,  in  consequence  of  which  the  upper  teeth  are  disclosed. 

The  frontal  zone  remains  in  repose;  excepting  that  there  is  a 
contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  eyelids,  especially  in  its 
lower  portion;  the  lower  lid  is  drawn  upward  and  the  skin  is 
puckered  at  the  external  angle  of  the  eye;  the  lachrymal  gland  is 
compressed,  the  circulation  of  blood  stimulated,  as  always  results 
from  every  expression  of  joy,  the  secretion  of  the  gland  is  increased, 
and  consequently  a  few  tears  are  readily  shed.  The  eye,  grown 
smaller  and  half  hidden,  shines  brilliantly,  because  moistened 
from  without  and  irrigated  from  within  by  an  abundant  flow  of 
blood. 

Expression  of  Various  Emotions:  Anger. — During  anger  the 
superciliary  muscles  prevail  in  exceedingly  energetic  action,  drawing 
the  forehead  strongly  downward,  wrinkling  it  vertically,  and  also 
producing  transverse  wrinkles  on  the  nose.  In  the  labial  zone  the 
orbicular  muscle  is  intensely  active,  and  the  lips  contract.  When 
anger  endures  for  a  long  time,  the  condition  above  described  di- 
minishes in  intensity,  leaving  only  a  slight  frown,  while  the  closed 
lips  protrude  in  tubular  form.  An  expression  usually  described 
by  the  terms,  to  sulk  or  pout. 

This  is  the  way  in  which  little  children  express  their  displeasure; 
and  the  pouting  lips  sometimes  rise  clear  to  the  tip  of  the  little 
nose,  in  sign  of  proud  defiance.  This  form  of  grimace  is  common  to 
the  children  of  every  race:  it  has  been  observed  in  the  children 
of  Hottentots  and  Chinese,  as  a  sign  of  prolonged  anger  and  ill 
humor. 

Hence  the  contraction  of  the  mouth  is  a  characteristic  sign  of 
anger;  and  when  the  emotion  is  very  strong,  even  the  masticatory 
muscles  may  enter  into  play,  causing  a  grinding  of  the  teeth. 

Surprise. — In  surprise,  on  the  contrary,  the  entire  labial  zone 
is  in  repose,  and  there  is  complete  and  free  contraction  of  one 
muscle  alone,  the  frontal;  consequently  it  produces  longitudinal 


280  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

lines  across  the  entire  forehead,  uplifting  the  eyebrows,  which 
passively  follow  the  elevation  produced  by  the  frontal  muscle, 
forming  two  arches  around  which  the  wrinkles  of  the  forehead 
form  themselves  in  parallel  lines.  The  eyes  in  consequence  are 
stretched  to  their  widest.  The  oral  zone  is  so  far  relaxed  that  the 
lower  jaw  droops  in  obedience  to  gravity  and  the  mouth  gapes 
open :  bouche  beante.  Sometimes  a  less  intense  degree  of  surprise 
fails  to  do  away  with  the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the 
lips,  which,  without  being  actively  contracted,  but  simply  because 
relieved  from  the  interference  of  antagonistic  muscles,  closes  the 
mouth  in  a  rounded  or  tubular  aperture. 

This  same  facial  expression,  which  is  a  very  striking  one, 
exists  in  all  races. 

When  children  are  still  too  young  to  contract  the  frontal 
muscle  completely,  they  show  surprise  by  a  gaping  mouth,  and  a 
puckering  of  the  entire  forehead,  in  place  of  the  transverse  furrows. 

Expression  of  Thought. — In  addition  to  the  expressions  of  the 
emotions,  the  authorities  describe  those  due  to  thought,  and  give 
special  consideration  to  the  expression  of  external  or  sensory  atten- 
tion, and  internal  attention  (reflection,  meditation).  The  young 
child  is  capable  of  intense  sensorial  attention,  which  is  manifested 
especially  in  visual  attention. 

I  have  been  able  to  make  many  observations  in  the  "Children's 
Houses,"  where  children  two  or  three  years  old  take  part  in 
games  that  demand  attention,  comparison,  and  the  exercise  of 
reason,  without  tiring  their  minds  or  encountering  any  great 
difficulty.  These  children  wrinkle  their  foreheads  and  hold  their 
mouths  slightly  open. 

This  is  the  expression  also  noted  by  Darwin,  and  the  one 
which  notoriously  produces  those  vertical  lines  in  the  middle  of 
the  forehead,  known  as  the  lines  of  thought. 

When  these  children  are  obliged  to  make  an  effort  of  thought 
or  when  they  are  for  any  reason  troubled  and  anxious,  slight 
contractions  pass  across  their  foreheads,  like  a  continuous  succes- 
sion of  broken  shadows  (Darwin).* 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  any  case  a  contraction  of  the  eye- 
brows during  intellectual  work  denotes  effort,  a  difficulty  to  be 
overcome.  Pure  thought,  by  itself  alone,  produces  no  such 
contractions. 

*  CHARLES  DARWIN,  Op.  cit. 


CRANIOLOGY  281 

The  contemplative  man,  absorbed  in  profound  meditation, 
shows  a  face  overspread  with  serenity,  due  to  muscular  repose;  the 
gaze  is  fixed  upon  the  void,  and  the  head,  as  though  no  longer 
sustained  by  the  relaxed  muscles,  is  inclined  forward. 

If  his  eyes  retain  steadfastly  the  same  original  direction,  even 
after  the  body  has  dropped  forward,  they  give  the  impression  of 
being  turned  on  high.  Such  is  the  expression  of  the  man  sunk  in 
profound  thought,  so  long  as  his  thought  follows  an  uninterrupted 
course. 

But  when  a  difficulty  arises,  see  how  he  begins  to  knit  his  brow. 
It  is  the  difficulty  which  has  arisen,  and  not  the  course  of  his 
thoughts,  that  has  produced  this  muscular  reaction. 

The  movement  is  similar  to  what  occurs  in  the  case  of,  any  diffi- 
culty to  overcome,  as,  for  instance,  the  threading  of  a  needle. 

Consequently  the  wrinkles  of  thought  are  the  wrinkles  of  the 
fatigue  of  thought. 

The  mystics,  who  are  purely  contemplative  thinkers,  and  not 
solvers  of  difficulties,  have  a  forehead  without  lines.  Similarly 
in  art,  the  faces  of  the  Madonna  or  of  the  Saints  have  an  intense 
expression  of  thought  in  their  gaze,  but  the  serene  countenance 
shows  neither  contractions  nor  lines. 

De  Sanctis*  has  made  some  interesting  observations  regarding 
the  facial  expression  of  the  mentally  deficient.  They  have  a 
singular  difficulty  in  contracting  the  frontal  muscle  even  at  the 
age  of  eleven  or  twelve  years;  even  when  urged  by  example  and 
command,  they  frequently  do  not  succeed  in  contracting  the  fore- 
head. Labial  expression,  on  the  other  hand,  is  much  more  de- 
veloped, and  frequently  attention  is  indicated  by  a  contraction 
of  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the  lips  into  a  circle;  and  surprise  is 
shown  in  the  same  way. 

In  general,  however,  what  characterises  the  face  of  the  imbecile, 
the  idiot,  the  epileptic,  is  its  immobility:  hypomimia  or  amimia. 

There  are,  however,  frequent  cases  of  cerebrophlegia  (a  pro- 
gressive malady  of  the  brain  occurring  during  the  early  years  of 
childhood),  in  which  exaggerated  contractions  of  the  face  occur 
as  the  result  of  the  least  mental  effort.  The  French  give  the  name 
of  grimaciers  to  children  who  show  such  symptoms;  from  patho- 
logical causes  they  exhibit  a  hypermimia  that  transforms  their 
facial  expressions  into  grimaces.  Furthermore,  there  are  certain 

*  SANTE  DE  SANCTIS,  La  Mimica  del  Pensiero  (The  Expression  of  Thought). 


282  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

degenerate  children  in  whom  the  muscular  reactions  do  not  corre- 
spond to  the  normal  expression  of  their  feelings;  for  example, 
they  exhibit  sorrow  when  they  mean  to  show  attention,  etc.  In 
such  cases  the  play  of  the  opposite  and  contradictory  facial  muscles 
has  become  perverted:  dismimia. 

One  of  the  most  frequent  occurrences  among  the  abnormal  is 
asymmetry  of  the  facial  expressions;  the  muscles  contract  more 
on  one  side  of  the  face  than  on  the  other.  This  symptom,  how- 
ever, in  a  mild  degree,  is  met  with  also  in  normal  persons. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  evident  that  for  the  examina- 
tion of  the  face  we  must  depend,  if  not  exclusively,  at  least  far 
more  upon  anthroposcopy  than  upon  anthropometry;  and  since 
the  minute  description  required  is  too  difficult  and  too  lengthy 
a  task,  especially  as  regards  the  facial  expressions  (which  are  so 
characteristic  of  the  individual)  it  is  necessary  in  pedagogic  anthro- 
pology to  resort  to  photography. 

The  instantaneous  photograph,  in  all  progressive  countries, 
is  already  within  the  reach  of  mothers.  It  ought  also  to  form  part 
of  the  equipment  of  our  schools. 

THE  NECK 

The  neck  is  a  part  which  is  anatomically  of  much  importance, 
but  not  of  equal  importance  from  the  anthropological  side.  The 
skeleton  of  the  neck  is  formed  of  the  seven  cervical  vertebrae. 
Notwithstanding  that  in  all  the  higher  vertebrates  the  neck  is 
constituted  of  the  same  number  of  vertebra,  it  can  assume  the 
most  varied  dimensions,  all  the  way  from  the  giraffe  to  the  whale. 
Similarly,  at  the  different  ages  of  man  it  is  at  one  time  barely 
indicated  and  almost  wanting  altogether,  as  in  the  new-born 
child,  and  again  long  and  flexible,  as  in  the  lovely  women  of  some 
of  the  higher  races. 

Godin  has  observed  that  the  maximum  increase  of  the  neck 
takes  place  between  the  fourteenth  and  sixteenth  year,  i.e.,  at 
the  epoch  of  puberty;  but  at  the  fourteenth  year  it  undergoes 
such  a  rapid  increase  that  it  surpasses  proportionally  the  puberal 
increase  of  the  total  stature. 

This  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

PROPORTION  OF  LENGTH  OF  NECK  TO  THE  STATURE  REDUCED  TO  100 
Age  in  years:        13$         14         14*         15         15*         16         16*         17         17* 
Proportions:         10  12         10          10         10  10        10          10        10 


CRANIOLOGY  283 

Consequently  the  proportion  between  neck  and  stature  is  a 
datum  that  tends  strongly  to  remain  a  fixed  quantity.  The  re- 
sult, however,  is  different  if  we  study  the  proportion  between  the 
neck  and  the  vertebral  column  as  a  whole. 

PROPORTION  OF  LENGTH  OF  NECK  TO  THE  TRUNK  REDUCED  TO  100 
Age  in  years:        13*         14         14*         15         15£         16         16£         17         17J 
Proportions:         34          35        34          35        35          35        35          35        34 

Accordingly  it  is  about  one-third  of  the  trunk. 

The  circumference  of  the  neck  is  also  taken,  for  it  shows  whether 
the  neck  is  slender  or  thick;  and  this  often  bears  a  relation  to  the 
degree  of  development  of  the  thyroid  gland. 

In  my  work  upon  the  women  of  Latium  I  have  shown  that  the 
small,  dark  women  have  a  longer  and  more  flexible  neck  than 
those  who  are  fair  and  of  tall  stature.  Therefore  this  is  a  racial 
difference,  similar  to  the  difference  we  have  already  noted  for 
types  of  stature.  The  macrosceles  have  a  long  and  slender  neck, 
and  the  opposite  is  found  in  the  case  of  the  brachysceles ;  conse- 
quently, a  very  long  neck  is  an  indication  of  a  weak  constitution. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  THORAX 

WE  have  already  had  occasion  to  point  out,  in  connection  with 
the  types  of  stature,  the  importance  of  the  thorax. 

The  relation  of  the  thoracic  perimeter  (circumference  of  the 
chest)  to  the  total  stature  (see  chapter  on  Technique]  was  called 
by  Goldstein  the  index  of  life,  in  order  to  indicate  that  the  organic 
resistance  of  any  individual  depends  upon  the  proportional  relation 
between  the  thorax  and  the  whole  body;  whoever  has  a  narrow 
chest  is  liable  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  and  in  his  physiological 
entirety  is  a  weakling  (see  chapter  on  Macroscelous  and  Brachy- 
scelous  Types'). 

Anatomical  Parts. — Anatomically  the  thorax  is  determined 
in  height  by  the  twelve  dorsal  or  thoracic  vertebrae,  which  are 
characterised  by  having  a  transverse  apophysis,  which  articu- 
lates with  the  twelve  pairs  of  ribs,  forming  the  thoracic  cage,  or 
chest. 

The  first  seven  pairs  of  ribs  articulate  in  front,  by  means  of 
cartilages,  with  the  lateral  margins  of  a  flat  bone,  the  sternum  or 
breast-bone,  which  is  formed  of  three  pieces :  the  manubrium  up- 
permost, then  the  corpus,  then,  lowest  of  all,  the  ensiform  (sword- 
shaped)  process. 

The  manubrium  and  the  corpus  form,  at  their  juncture,  an 
angle  more  or  less  marked,  according  to  the  individual,  and  the 
lateral  articulation  of  the  second  rib  corresponds  to  this  angle. 
In  the  new-born  child  the  sternum  is  a  cartilage  with  points  of 
ossification  arranged  longitudinally  like  the  beads  of  a  rosary. 
The  seventh  vertebra  articulates  laterally  at  the  point  at  which 
the  ensiform  process  is  attached  to  the  corpus  of  the  sternum.  The 
next  three  ribs  (8th,  9th  and  10th)  are  articulated  together  and 
with  the  seventh  by  means  of  cartilaginous  arches;  the  last  two 
pairs  of  ribs  (llth  and  12th)  are  free  or  floating.  At  the  top,  the 
thoracic  cage  is  reinforced  by  the  thoracic  girdle,  which  serves  also 
to  afford  articulation  for  the  upper  limbs,  and  which  consists  of 

284 


THE  THORAX  285 

the  clavicles,  in  front,  and  of  the  scapulae,  behind.  The  clavicles 
are  long  bones  placed  in  an  almost  horizontal  position  above  the 
thorax,  and  they  determine  the  width  of  the  chest;  at  the  inner 
extremity  they  articulate  with  the  manubrium  of  the  sternum 
and  at  the  outer  extremity  they  are  attached  to  the  acromial  pro- 
cess of  the  scapulae.  The  scapulae  are  flat  bones  which  are  attached 
to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  thoracic  frame,  on  which  they  are 
freely  movable,  covering  a  tract  extending  from  the  second  to  the 
seventh  rib.  At  their  upper  and  outer  extremity  they  are  provided 
with  two  bony  processes;  namely,  the  acromion,  already  mentioned, 
which  contains  the  points  of  maximum  width  of  the  shoulders,  and 
the  coracoid  process,  which  terminates  anteriorly  and,  together 
with  the  acromion,  overhangs  the  articulation  of  the  humerus  with 
the  body  of  the  scapula. 

Powerful  muscles  clothe  the  thoracic  frame,  serving  partly  in 
the  movements  of  respiration  and  partly  in  the  movements  of  the 
upper  limbs.  It  may  suffice  to  mention,  among  the  muscles  sit- 
uated posteriorly,  the  cucullaris,  the  great  dorsal  (m.  longissimus 
dorsi),  the  rhomboids  of  the  scapulae  (m.  rhomboidus  major  and 
minor),  and  the  serratus  posterior  of  the  ribs;  anteriorly,  the  large 
and  small  pectoral  and  the  great  serratus;  beside  which  there  are 
the  intercostal  muscles,  extending  from  rib  to  rib  and  taking  part 
in  the  movements  of  respiration.  But  the  most  important  muscle 
is  the  diaphragm,  which  completely  closes  the  thoracic  cavity, 
rising  into  it  in  a  convex  vault  and  separating  it  from  the  abdomen ; 
this  constitutes  the  most  active  of  all  the  muscles  which  partici- 
pate in  the  movements  of  respiration.  The  thoracic  cavity,  thus 
determined,  encloses  the  two  most  important  viscera  of  vegetative 
life — the  heart  and  the  lungs. 

The  heart  is  a  muscle  shaped  like  a  pear  or  cone,  having  its  base 
turned  upward,  and  its  apex  or  point  turned  downward  and  out- 
ward toward  the  left,  corresponding  to  the  fifth  intercostal  space; 
it  is  divided,  as  is  well  known,  into  four  cavities,  and  constitutes 
the  great  motor  power  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  lungs  are 
two  in  number,  right  and  left,  and  surround  the  heart,  completely 
filling  the  thoracic  cavity.  The  lungs  are  divided  into  superim- 
posed lobes,  three  in  the  right  and  two  in  the  left  lung;  they  are 
composed  essentially  of  infinitely  small  ramifications  of  the  bronchi, 
resolving  into  tiny  series  of  chambers,  the  pulmonary  alveoli  or 
air-cells.  These  alveoli,  consisting  of  a  single  layer  of  extremely 

19 


286  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

small  cells,  are  surrounded  by  a  dense  network  of  capillary  tubes, 
through  which  takes  place  the  interchange  of  oxygen  and  carbon 
dioxide.  It  has  been  calculated  that  if  we  should  estimate  and 
sum  up  the  internal  surfaces  of  the  pulmonary  alveoli,  or,  what 
comes  to  the  same  thing,  if  we  should  spread  out  and  join  together 
the  alveolar  walls  of  the  lungs,  they  would  have  a  superficial  area 
of  200  square  metres.  This  area  might  be  compared  to  the  foliage 
of  a  great  human  tree  (respiratory  surface). 

Physiological  and  Hygienic  Aspect. — The  importance  of  the 
thorax  is  physiological,  because  it  contains  the  highly  important 
viscera  of  vegetative  life;  but  this  importance  is  especially  asso- 
ciated with  the  lungs.  The  lungs  are  the  organs  that  acquire  the 
oxygen  from  the  outside  environment,  and  this  oxygen,  when  taken 
up  by  the  hemoglobin  in  the  blood,  will  serve  to  oxygenate  the 
tissues  of  the  entire  organism,  and  thus  aid  in  the  processes  of  cellu- 
lar metabolism.  A  large  supply  of  oxygen  stimulates  this  inter- 
change of  matter,  not  only  because  the  organism  as  a  whole  is 
enriched  in  the  substance  essential  to  this  process  (oxygen),  but 
because  the  heart  responds  to  the  increased  activity  of  the  lungs 
by  more  energetic  pulsations  calculated  to  set  the  blood  circulating 
in  far  greater  quantities.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  our 
whole  physiological  life  is  enclosed  within  the  thorax,  because  the 
digestive  system  does  nothing  more  than  prepare  a  blood  that  is 
unfitted  to  irrigate  the  tissues  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  them 
with  nutriment;  it  is  only  after  this  blood  has  passed  through  the 
lungs  that  it  is  transformed  into  oxygenated  blood  and  is  adapted  to 
assimilation.  Consequently  the  intestines  prepare  nothing  more 
than  the  raw  material,  and  it  is  the  lungs  which  perform  the  service 
of  perfecting  it;  while  the  heart  drives  it  through  its  circuit  into 
contact  with  all  the  tissues  of  the  organism. 

Whoever  has  inadequate  lungs  is  for  that  reason  alone  a  person 
who  necessarily  receives  insufficient  nutriment  (thin  and  weak 
macroscele),  and  frequently  is  also  a  melancholiac.  Melancholia 
accompanies  every  form  of  physiological  decadence.  On  the  con- 
trary, persons  with  ample  lungs  are  generally  serene  of  spirit  and 
joyous.  In  fact,  the  emotion  of  joy  is  at  the  same  time  both  the 
cause  and  the  consequence  of  an  active  circulation  of  oxygenated 
blood  (florid  or  ruddy  complexion). 

Certain  experiments  conducted  with  birds  have  proved  that  if 
free  oxygen  is  introduced  under  an  air-bell  in  which  the  birds  have 


THE  THORAX  287 

been  enclosed,  they  gradually  become  more  and  more  excited,  sing- 
ing and  fluttering  as  if  possessed  by  a  frensy  of  joyousness.  It  is  a 
fact  that  we  often  rid  ourselves  of  a  fit  of  melancholy  by  taking 
a  walk  in  the  open  air;  persons  possessed  of  good  lungs  feel  within 
themselves  a  vital  potentiality  that  perceptibly  aids  them  to  make 
what  we  call  an  "effort  of  will";  when  sorrow  befalls  them,  or  over- 
exertion  has  exhausted  their  strength,  persons  of  this  type  feel  some 
force  spring  up  within  them  that  seems  to  give  them  fresh  hope  and 
courage.  It  is  their  oxygenated  blood,  which  neither  weariness  nor 
depression  of  spirit  can  stay  in  its  luxuriant  course;  the  man  of 
weak  lungs,  on  the  contrary,  is  mentally  depressed,  because  his 
physiological  life  has  slowed  down ;  and,  instead  of  aiding  him,  it  is 
his  physiological  life  which  demands  of  him  a  genuine  effort  of  will 
to  reestablish  its  equilibrium. 

Accordingly,  those  persons  who  have  a  well-developed  chest  are 
certainly  the  healthiest  and  the  happiest. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  pulmonary  function ;  the  lungs  are  also 
the  organs  of  speech.  In  fact,  while  speech  is  manufactured  in  the 
brain  and  the  cerebral  nerves  that  stimulate  the  organs  of  the 
spoken  word,  it  requires  also  its  "driving  power,"  that  is  to  say,  air, 
in  order  to  obtain  utterance;  and  it  is  the  lungs  to  which  singers 
and  speakers  alike  owe  the  physical  strength  of  their  voice.  Even 
the  respiratory  rhythm  has  a  great  influence  upon  speech. 

The  spoken  word  requires  a  most  complicated  mechanism,  and 
among  the  details  of  this  mechanism,  by  no  means  the  least  im- 
portant are  the  acts  of  inspiration,  by  which  the  ah*  is  received  into 
the  lungs,  and  of  expiration,  by  which  it  is  expelled,  simultaneously 
with  all  the  other  movements  producing  speech.  Indeed,  we  know 
that  when  speech  is  further  complicated  by  the  act  of  singing,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  study  special  rules  for  breathing;  in  short,  to 
educate  the  voice. 

Now,  why  do  we  not  also  educate  the  voice  for  its  ordinary  task 
of  the  spoken  language?  Speech  is  one  of  the  marvels  that  char- 
acterise man,  and  also  one  of  the  most  difficult  spontaneous  crea- 
tions that  have  been  accomplished  by  nature.  Through  the  voice, 
the  lawyer  defends  the  innocent,  the  teacher  educates  the  new 
generations,  the  mother  recalls  her  erring  son  to  the  path  of  virtue, 
lovers  unite  their  souls,  and  all  humanity  interchanges  ideas.  If 
intelligence  is  the  triumph  of  life,  the  spoken  word  is  the  marvellous 
means  by  which  this  intelligence  is  manifested. 


288  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

We  trouble  ourselves  to  educate  the  voice  only  for  the  purpose 
of  singing,  and  neglect  the  spoken  word.  We  do  not  stop  to  think 
that  singing  appeals  only  to  the  senses  and  emotions,  while  speech 
appeals  to  the  emotions  and  the  intellect,  and  therefore  charms 
and  at  the  same  time  convinces. 

Anyone  who  has  heard  that  wonderfully  gifted  speaker,  Ofelia 
Mazzoni,  expounding  our  great  poets  to  the  labouring  classes  at 
the  People's  University  in  Milan,  rousing  the  slumbering  intelli- 
gence of  the  working  man,  will  understand  what  an  immense  edu- 
cative force  we  are  neglecting. 

In  a  century  in  which  we  speak  of  an  intellectual  reawakening 
and  a  brotherhood  of  man,  we  have  forgotten  the  voice!  Yet  in 
this  new  era  of  humanity  that  is  learning  brotherly  love  and  striv- 
ing for  peace,  the  voice  plays  a  part  analogous  to  that  of  the  trum- 
pet-call in  the  centuries  consecrated  to  war. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  our  schools  so  far  neglect  defects  of  speech 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  a  stammerer  undergoing  examina- 
tions for  a  degree  in  jurisprudence.  The  fact  that  an  otherwise 
cultured  man  lisps  or  stammers  is  treated  by  us  as  quite  an  in- 
different matter,  just  as  among  savage  tribes  a  king  may  have 
unclean  nails  without  anyone  observing  the  fact. 

Yet  it  is  now  known  that  stammering  may  usually  be  cured  by  a 
systematic  training  in  the  art  of  breathing. 

Respiratory  gymnastics  ought  to  constitute  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal courses  of  instruction  in  schools  for  children.  I  have  intro- 
duced it  into  the  "Children's  Houses,"  among  children  between 
the  ages  of  four  and  six,  combining  it  with  a  special  instruction 
in  written  language  (letters  of  the  alphabet),  designed  to  educate 
the  movements  of  the  organs  of  speech,  without  worrying  or  tiring 
the  children,  and  this  method  has  borne  such  good  results  that  our 
little  ones,  by  the  time  they  are  five  years  old,  have  lost  nearly 
all  their  defects  in  pronunciation. 

Spirometry. — The  pulmonary  capacity  may  be  measured  directly 
by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the  spirometer;  the  breath  must 
be  strongly  expelled  through  a  tube  opening  into  a  hollow  cylinder, 
thus  raising  a  graduated  piston  contained  in  it;  and,  by  reading  the 
figure  indicated  on  the  piston-rod,  we  learn  the  volume  of  air  ex- 
pelled from  the  lungs. 

Such  an  instrument  is  better  adapted  for  use  by  adults  than  by 
children;  and  if  it  should  ever  come  to  be  introduced  into  the 


THE  THORAX  289 

schools,  it  should  not  in  any  case  be  used  below  the  elementary 
grades. 

The  person  who  is  going  to  measure  the  capacity  of  his  lungs 
by  means  of  the  spirometer,  begins  by  drawing  in  an  unusually 
deep  or  forced  inhalation;  then,  after  holding  his  breath  for  a  mo- 
ment, he  proceeds  to  expel  into  the  rubber  tube  all  the  air  in  his 
lungs,  in  a  forced  exhalation.  In  an  exercise  of  this  sort,  all  the 
difficulties  of  respiratory  gymnastics  are  successively  surmounted 
— inspiration,  respiratory  pause,  expiration. 

In  fact,  in  accomplishing  the  forced  inspiration,  all  the  pul- 
monary alveoli  must  be  dilated  to  the  maximum  extent,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  thorax  must  reach  its  maximum  dilation.  This 
is  a  very  different  matter  from  normal  inspiration,  which  does  not 
completely  dilate  the  alveoli.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  tidal  air 
or  air  of  respiration,  i.e.,  the  air  taken  in  and  expelled  in  each  nor- 
mal respiration,  is  about  500  cubic  centimetres ;  but  the  sum  total 
of  air  habitually  contained  in  the  lungs  is  made  up  of  two  quantities : 
first,  that  which  may  be  emitted  by  a  forced  expiration,  the  supple- 
mental or  reserve  air,  amounting  to  1,600  cubic  centimetres;  and 
secondly,  the  air  which  cannot  ever  be  emitted,  because  no 
amount  of  effort  could  completely  expel  all  the  air  from  the  lungs ; 
residual  air  or  respiratory  residuum  amounting  to  1,200  cubic 
centimetres.  To  recapitulate,  the  average  pulmonary  capacity 
is  the  sum  of  the  following  average  quantities  of  air : 

Residual  air,  or  respiratory  residuum  (which  can  never  be  expelled  from  the  lungs) 

=   1200  cu.  cm. 
Respiratory  reserve  (which  can  be  expelled  by  a  forced  expiration)     =   1600  cu.  cm. 

Tidal  air =     500  cu.  cm. 

Complementary  air  (which  can  be  drawn  in  by  a  forced  inspiration)    =  1670  cu.  cm. 

Accordingly,  the  total  pulmonary  capacity  is  about  5,000 
cubic  centimetres,  or  five  litres.  But  in  normal  respiration,  the 
capacity  is  less,  i.e.,  about  3,300  cubic  centimetres,  the  air  due  to 
a  forced  inspiration  not  being  included. 

Therefore,  in  each  normal  respiration  a  half  litre  of  pure  air 
(assuming  that  it  is  pure)  is  introduced  and  mingled  with  the 
vitiated  air  already  within  the  lungs;  and  since,  in  expiration,  a 
third  only  of  this  500  cubic  centimetres  is  eliminated,  it  follows 
that  166  cubic  centimetres  are  mingled  with  the  3,300  cubic  centi- 
metres; in  other  words,  that  only  one-tenth  of  the  air  is  renewed 
in  each  normal  act  of  respiration. 


290  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

A  very  energetic  forced  inspiration  may  draw  into  the  lungs, 
in  addition  to  the  customary  500  cubic  centimetres,  an  additional 
1,670  cubic  centimetres  of  pure  air,  complementary  air.  In  this 
case  the  lungs  contain  upward  of  5,000  cubic  centimetres  of  air. 

The  forced  expiration  which  follows  upon  this  extra  deep  in- 
halation purges  the  lungs  of  the  vitiated  air  which  has  formed 
there.  In  this  way  we  complete  an  exercize  that  is  eminently 
hygienic. 

Now,  these  spirometric  movements  are  fraught  with  difficul- 
ties :  1.  The  forced  inspiration,  deep  enough  to  extend  the  alveoli, 
may  be  more  or  less  complete.  If  a  cloth  wrung  out  in  cold  water 
is  laid  across  the  shoulders,  the  inspiration  which  follows  as  a  result 
of  reflex  action  is  far  deeper  than  that  produced  by  an  act  of  will ; 
this  proves  that  the  lungs  can  be  dilated  to  a  point  beyond  that 
which  seems  to  us  to  be  the  extreme  limit,  and  therefore  that  with 
practice  we  may  learn  to  dilate  our  lungs  still  further. 

2.  When  the  attempt  is  made  to  hold  the  breath  after  a  forced 
inspiration,  almost  everyone  at  the  first  trials  will  allow  more  or 
less  of  the  air  to  escape;  that  is,  they  will  discover  themselves 
incapable  of  controlling  their  own  organs  of  respiration ;  therefore, 
a  gymnastic  exercise  for  acquiring  such  control  is  necessary.     This 
is  the  exercise  which  will  make  us  masters  of  the  movements 
required  to  produce  vocal  sounds  at  pleasure. 

3.  A  slow  expiration  so  controlled  as  to  give  time  for  the  air 
to  penetrate  into  the  spirometer,  is  accomplished,  though  some- 
what unevenly,  the  first  few  times,  and  is  perfected  with  practice. 

It  results  from  the  above  that:  1.  We  take  in  less  air  than  we 
are  able  to  take  in;  2.  part  of  this  air  is  lost  outside  the  spirometer; 
consequently  the  spirometer  registers  a  pulmonary  capacity  below 
that  which  the  lungs  actually  have;  and  we  shall  find  that,  with 
practice,  the  volumetric  figure  will  successively  augment.  But 
the  pulmonary  capacity  has  not  augmented  in  proportion;  it  is 
only  that  practice  has  perfected  the  respiratory  movements.  Accord- 
ingly, the  spirometer  may  serve  as  an  instrument  to  test  the  prog- 
ress made  in  respiratory  gymnastics,  and,  in  the  case  of  those  who 
have  already  become  skilful  in  its  use,  it  becomes  a  really  valuable 
instrument  for  measuring  the  respiratory  capacity. 

When  we  remember  that  a  portion  of  the  air,  i.e.,  1,200  cubic 
centimetres,  never  issues  from  the  lungs,  it  follows  that  the  respira- 
tory capacity  is  less  by  1,200  cubic  centimetres  than  the  pulmonary 


THE  THORAX  291 

capacity,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  on  an  average  upward  of 
5,000  cubic  centimetres  (5,370)  in  the  adult  man.  Hence,  the 
spirometer  directly  measures  the  respiratory  capacity,  and  only 
indirectly  the  pulmonary  capacity. 

When  women  measure  their  lungs  by  means  of  the  spirometer, 
they  have  difficulty  in  registering  2,000  cubic  centimetres,  and 
men  have  difficulty  in  attaining  2,600  cubic  centimetres.  Instead 
of  which,  a  man  ought  to  be  able  to  register  between  3,800  and 
4,000  cubic  centimetres. 

What  keeps  the  lungs  healthy  is  an  abundant  aeration  with 
air  rich  in  oxygen,  and  not  impure  with  carbon  dioxide  and  other 
poisonous  gases.  When  the  pulmonary  air-cells  are  insufficiently 
dilated,  they  are  predisposed  to  attack  by  the  bacillus  of  tuber- 
culosis. Indeed,  pulmonary  tuberculosis  usually  begins  at  the 
apexes  of  the  lungs,  which  are  less  thoroughly  aerated,  and  also 
usually  attacks  persons  with  narrow  chests.  The  treatment  of 
tuberculosis  is  eminently  afresh-air  treatment;  tuberculous  patients 
may  be  benefited  and  even  cured  in  a  remarkable  percentage  of 
cases  (50  per  cent.)  if  they  are  exposed  day  and  night  to  the  open 
air.  In  this  way  the  relation  between  free  respiration  and  pul- 
monary health  is  demonstrated. 

In  America  at  the  present  time  the  hygienic  rule  of  sleeping 
at  night,  winter  and  summer,  with  the  windows  open,  is  gaining 
ground,  and  even  the  practice  of  sleeping  in  the  open  air.  And 
the  various  forms  of  sport  also  have  the  beneficial  effect  of  bring- 
ing those  who  indulge  in  them  into  a  healthy  contact  with  fresh 
air,  which  civilised  man  has  shown  a  fatal  tendency  to  abandon. 

The  same  exercise  which  dilates  the  lungs  (the  contents)  also 
dilates  the  thorax  (the  container).  The  result  is  that  man  ends 
by  acquiring  the  thorax  corresponding  to  his  vocation,  or  in  other 
words,  a  thorax  corresponding  to  the  life  that  he  leads  in  conse- 
quence of  the  form  of  work  to  which  he  devotes  himself.  Shep- 
herds in  mountain  districts  and  mountain  peasants  have  the  largest 
thorax,  notwithstanding,  as  we  have  seen,  that  they  are  more 
scantily  nourished.  In  cities,  the  maximum  average  circum- 
ference of  chest  is  found  among  the  cart-drivers,  and  the  minimum 
among  university  students  and  in  general  among  those  who  have 
grown  up  in  an  inclosed  environment,  with  the  thorax  artificially 
cramped  by  the  position  assumed  while  writing  or  reading  at  a 
desk;  yet  this  is  the  class  of  persons  who  have  abundant  nutriment. 


292  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Consequently,  we  find  a  division  of  air  and  bread  between 
different  social  castes;  those  who  have  air,  do  not  have  bread,  and 
they  possess  large  lungs,  out  of  proportion  to  bodies  which,  being 
under-fed,  have  been  unable  to  grow;  and  those  who  have  bread 
do  not  have  air,  and  they  possess  lungs  that  are  insufficient  for 
the  needs  of  bodies  that  have  grown  under  the  influence  of  abun- 
dant nutrition.  Consequently,  all  civilised  men  are  physiologically 
out  of  equilibrium,  and  their  physical  health  is  lessened.  But 
those  who  suffer  most  from  this  loss  of  equilibrium  are  the  studious 
class,  who  have  nourished  themselves  upon  hopes  and  opened  their 
minds  to  great  ideas,  and  deluded  themselves  into  undertaking 
big  enterprises;  but  in  real  action  they  find  that  they  are  weak, 
and  that  they  easily  fall  into  discouragement  and  depression,  and 
when  their  will-power  forces  them  onward,  their  organism  responds 
with  nervous  prostration  and  melancholia. 

It  is  a  sad  fact  that  at  the  present  day  the  best  energies  of  man 
reach  maturity  possessed  of  insufficient  lungs,  and  consequently 
liable  to  break  down  in  health,  energy  and  strength. 

A  large  part  of  the  studious  class,  such,  for  instance,  as  the 
teachers,  are  at  the  present  day  devoting  themselves  to  a  form  of 
work  which  is  not  a  pulmonary  exercise,  but  pulmonary  destruc- 
tion. 

We  must  remember  that  healthy  exercise  of  the  lungs  should 
take  place  in  the  open  air,  and  consists  of  indrawn  breaths  deep 
enough  to  dilate  the  air-chambers.  Instead  of  this,  the  teacher 
speaks,  which  means  that  he  makes  forced  expirations,  during  many 
hours  in  an  enclosed  environment  and  in  an  assemblage  of  persons 
who,  for  the  most  part,  are  far  from  clean.  The  bacillus  of  tuber- 
culosis finds  in  the  teacher  its  favourite  camping-ground.  In 
fact,  statistics  indicate  that  the  maximum  mortality  from  tuber- 
culosis is  among  teachers;  higher  even  than  among  nurses.  It  is 
really  distressing  to  think  of  the  ignorance  of  hygiene  in  which 
our  schools  are  even  yet  steeped,  so  that  they  seem  forgetful  of 
the  body,  in  their  pursuit  of  a  spirit  that  eludes  them  and  that, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  not  being  educated  in  anything  approach- 
ing a  rational  manner. 

When  we  enter  a  class-room,  we  see  rows  of  benches  constructed 
like  orthopedic  machines,  to  the  end  that  the  vertical  columns 
of  the  pupils  shall  not  be  distorted  during  their  enforced  labour; 
and  the  thought  arises:  this  is  the  spot  in  which  the  teacher  be- 


THE  THORAX  293 

comes  a  consumptive  for  the  sake  of  transforming  the  children 
into  hunchbacks.  What  is  the  reward  of  so  great  a  sacrifice? 
What  sort  of  a  preparation  in  ideals  and  in  character  are  they 
giving  to  the  new  generations  through  such  disastrous  means? 
What  are  the  obstacles  which  they  are  being  taught,  through  so 
much  suffering,  to  surmount  and  to  conquer?  What,  in  short,  is 
the  spiritual  gain  achieved  at  the  cost  of  so  great  an  impoverish- 
ment of  the  body? 

The  answering  silence  that  greets  these  questions  indicates 
that  we  have  a  great  mission  to  accomplish. 

Anthropological  studies  made  upon  pupils  have  demonstrated 
that  school-children  rarely  attain  a  sufficient  chest  development. 
I  also  have  made  my  modest  contribution,  proving  that  the  bright- 
est scholars,  the  prize-winners,  etc.,  who,  as  a  general  rule,  also 
enjoy  an  advantage  in  social  position,  have  a  narrower  chest  measure. 
Among  the  children  that  are  recognised  as  the  brightest  in  their 
classes,  I  have  been  able  to  distinguish  two  categories:  those  who 
are  exceptionally  intelligent,  and  those  who  are  exceptionally 
studious;  the  former  have  a  better  chest  development  than  the 
latter. 

Signorina  Massa,  one  of  my  pupils  at  the  University,  in  the 
course  of  kindred  studies  made  among  pupils  of  a  uniform  social 
grade  (the  poorer  classes)  observed  that  the  best  and  brightest 
scholars,  etc.,  have  a  chest  circumference  and  a  muscular  strength 
notably  inferior  to  the  children  who  are  not  studious.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  an  assiduous  application  to  the  study  table 
impoverishes  the  organism  and  above  all  impedes  the  normal 
development  of  the  thorax.  This  fact  has  a  really  overwhelming 
importance.  Study  the  tables  of  mortality  in  Italy  for  infective 
diseases,  i.e.,  those  diseases  in  which  mankind  meets  the  assault 
of  the  microscopic  invader  either  with  a  strong  constitution,  or 
with  one  already  predisposed  to  defeat.  The  most  dreaded  dis- 
eases, such  as  diphtheria,  typhoid,  measles  and  scarlet  fever  are 
all  grouped  together  under  a  mortality  oscillating  between  five 
and  twenty-five  thousand  deaths  a  year.  But  bronchitis  and 
pneumonia  each  cause  a  mortality  that  ascends  to  between  seventy 
and  eighty  thousand  deaths;  in  this  group  it  is  evident  that  we 
must  take  into  consideration,  not  only  the  infected  environment, 
but  also  the  organic  predisposition.  Every  man  and  woman  has 
been  prepared,  by  their  years  in  school,  to  have  in  the  form  of  a 


294 


tk. 


narrow  chest  and  an  insufficient  development  of  the  organs  of 
respiration,  a  locus  minoris  resistentice.  Whoever  talks  of  the 
war  against  tuberculosis  ought  first  of  all  to  investigate  the  school 
and  its  pedagogic  methods. 

Anthropological  Aspect.  Growth  of  the  Thorax. — In  the  course 
of  its  growth  the  thorax  undergoes  an  evolution/not  only  in  itself, 
but  also  in  its  relation  to  the  vertebral  column. 

The  nature  of  the  transformations  undergone  by  the  skeleton 
of  the  trunk  in  relation  to  its  different  parts  is  substantially  as 

follows:  in  the  child  at  birth 
the  vertebral  column  is 
straight,  and  the  thorax  is 
higher  up  than  in  the  adult ; 
the  pelvis,  on  the  contrary, 
slants  forward  and  down- 
ward. In  the  adult  the  ver- 
tebral column  is  curved  in 
the  form  of  an  S,  showing 
the  two  -familiar  dorsal- 
lumbar  curves,  and  the  axes 
of  the  thorax  and  pelvis  are 
more  perceptibly  horizontal; 
in  short,  in  the  course  of 
growth  a  descent  of  the  thorax 
has  taken  place,  together  with  a  rotation  of  the  pelvis  (Fig.  124). 

A.  Descent  of  the  Thorax. — This  is  the  chief  of  these  character- 
istics :  the  thorax  descends  in  the  course  of  its  growth. 

In  the  new-born  child  the  upper  edge  of  the  manubrium  of  the 
sternum  is  in  juxtaposition  to  the  body  of  the  first  dorsal  vertebra, 
while  in  the  adult  it  is  situated  on  a  level  with  the  lower  edge  of  the 
second  vertebra. 

Even  the  tendinous  arch  of  the  diaphragm  has  shifted,  being 
lowered  by  the  space  of  a  vertebra;  it  is  situated  between  the  eighth 
and  ninth  vertebrae  in  the  child  at  birth,  and  between  the  ninth 
and  tenth  in  the  adult. 

The  outside  characteristics  are  in  correspondence  with  this  fact ; 
the  shoulders  descend  in  the  course  of  growth.  In  the  adult,  the 
acromia  or  points  of  the  shoulders  are  on  a  lower  level  than  the 
incisura  or  cleft  in  the  sternum  (which  is  visible  at  the  anterior 
base  of  the  neck,  and  may  be  felt  as  an  indented  half-moon) ;  while 


n&ff-b 


orn  c, 


adult 


FIG.  124. 


THE  THORAX 


295 


in  the  new-born  child,  on  the  contrary,  the  shoulders  are  higher  up 
than  the  upper  extremity  of  the  sternum. 

Another  external  characteristic  of  the  descent  of  the  thorax  is 
the  change  in  position  of  the  nipples  at  successive  ages ;  the  mam- 
mary papillae  of  the  adult  correspond  to  the  level  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  sternum,  and  are  situated  respectively  at  the  central 
points  of  the  two  halves  of  the  thorax;  in  the  new-born  child,  on 
the  contrary,  the  mammary  papillae  are  further  apart  and  higher  up. 

These  characteristics  of  the  descent  of  the  thorax  are  fully 
established  in  the  period  of  puberty 
and  are  of  great  importance,  since, 
if  not  completed,  they  indicate 
cases  of  arrest  of  development  or 
infantilism. 

Quetelet  has  made  a  study  of 
the  triangulation  of  the  thorax 
(Fig.  125). 

If  the  two  nipples  and  the 
sternal  incisura  are  connected  by 
straight  lines  inclosing  an  isosceles 
triangle  ABB',  the  length  of  the 
base  in  the  new-born  child  is  70 
millimetres,  and  that  of  the  sides 
BA,  B'A  is  54  millimetres,  and  the 
height  41  millimetres. 

In  the  adult  the  dimensions 
are  as  follows:  BE'  =  197  millimetres;  AB,  AB'  =  184  milli- 
metres ;  and  the  height  =  155  millimetres.  Comparing  the  measure- 
ments of  the  child  at  birth  with  those  of  the  adult,  we  find  that 
the  base  in  the  adult  is  2.81  times,  and  the  side  3.41  times  that  of 
the  child;  in  other  words,  the  sides  of  the  triangle  increase  far 
more  than  the  base,  and  its  height  in  the  adult  (representing 
very  nearly  the  entire  height  of  the  sternum),  is  3.78  times  that 
in  the  new-born  child.  Consequently,  in  the  course  of  its  trans- 
formation the  thorax  not  only  descends,  but  it  is  also  lengthened 
in  the  adult,  as  compared  with  the  form  that  it  had  at  birth. 

B.  Dimensions  of  Thorax  in  Relation  to  Stature. — Besides  its 
descent,  there  is  a  second  transformation  of  the  thorax,  in  regard 
to  its  volumetric  relations  to  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  perimeter 
of  the  thorax  and  the  circumference  of  the  head  are  pretty  nearly 


FIG.  125. — A  =  vertex  of  triangle;  B  B'- 
extremities  of  base,  corresponding  to  the 
two  nipples. 


296  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

equal  in  the  new-born  child  ;  if  anything,  the  circumference  of  the 
thorax  is  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  the  head;  but  when  it  equals  it, 
this  is  a  sign  of  robustness.  In  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  not  until 
the  second  year  or  thereabouts  that  the  two  circumferences  be- 
come equal.  If,  however,  such  unequality  should  still  persist 
after  the  child  had  entered  upon  the  third  year,  it  would  con- 
stitute a  sign  of  rickets  (head  too  large,  chest  too  narrow). 

As  to  the  relations  between  the  thoracic  circumference  and  the 
stature,  it  is  found  that  in  the  child  at  birth  the  thoracic  circumfer- 
ence exceeds  one-half  the  stature  by  about  10  centimetres.  If  the 
difference  is  less  than  8  centimetres  it  is  a  sign  of  feeble  constitution, 
if  it  is  greater  than  10  (for  instance,  11  centimetres)  it  is  a  sign  of 
great  robustness. 

This  difference  disappears  little  by  little  ;  at  the  age  of  five  years 
it  is  already  reduced  to  between  4  and  5  centimetres  ;  at  the  age  of 
fifteen,  the  period  of  puberty,  it  has  wholly  disappeared,  and  the 
well-known  relation  between  the  stature  and  the  circumference  of 
the  thorax  has  become  established;  the  thoracic  circumference  is 
equal  to  one-half  the  stature  (see  chapter  on  Form),  and  this  con- 
stitutes Goldstein's  vital  index: 

Fi 


As  early  as  1895,  Pagliani  published  some  studies  of  children, 
which  reveal  the  physiological  importance  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
thorax;  watching  the  lives  of  infants  whose  measurements  he  took 
at  the  foundling  asylum,  he  observed  that  the  mortality  of  infants 
is  quite  rare  when  they  exceed  the  above  proportions  between  •cir- 
cumference of  chest,  head,  and  stature. 

From  a  study  of  452  infants,  Fraebelius  has  drawn  the  following 
conclusions  : 

I.  Mortality  21  per  cent.  ;  circumference  of  thorax  greater  than 
half  the  stature  by  9.10  centimetres;  circumference  of  thorax  less 
by  1.5  centimetres  than  perimeter  of  cranium. 

II.  Mortality  42.9  per  cent.;  circumference  of  thorax  greater 
by  7  centimetres  than  one-half  the  stature;  circumference  of  thorax 
less  by  2.8  centimetres  than  circumference  of  cranium. 

III.  Mortality  67.5  per  cent.;  circumference  of  thorax  greater 
by  4.5  centimetres  than  one-half  the  stature;  circumference  of 
thorax  less  by  4.7  centimetres  than  the-  cranial  circumference. 


THE  THORAX  297 

The  thorax  in  children  of  five  years  and  upward  ought  to  be 
larger  by  a  few  centimetres  (not  more  than  from  4  to  5)  than  one- 
half  the  stature. 

C.  Transformations  of  the  Thorax  Considered  by  Itself:  Altera- 
tions in  Shape. 

Thoracic  Index. — Lastly,  the  thorax  changes  its  shape  in  the 
course  of  growth.  In  the  new-born  child  it  is  very  prominent  in 
front,  and  narrow  laterally;  in  the  adult,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  more 
flattened  in  its  antero-posterior  dimension  and  wider  transversely. 
Consequently  the  transformation  consists  in  a  notable  difference 
in  the  proportion  between  the  width  and  depth  of  the  chest,  that  is, 
between  the  antero-posterior  and  the  transverse  diameters  (see 
chapter  on  Technique).  This  proportion  constitutes  the  thoracic 
index,  which  is  expressed  by  the  following  formula: 

100A-PD 


Ti  = 


TD 


and  this  formula  gives  an  idea  of  the  shape  of  the  thorax. 

In  the  child  at  birth  the  antero-posterior  diameter  is  very  nearly 
equal  to  the  transverse;  accordingly,  the  index,  at  birth,  oscillates 
between  90  and  100. 

In  the  adult,  however,  the  thoracic  index  is  on  an  average  75 ; 
the  transverse  diameter  therefore  increases  much  more  than  the 
antero-posterior  diameter.  According  to  Quetelet,  while  the  trans- 
verse diameter  multiplies  three-fold  in  the  course  of  its  growth, 
the  antero-posterior  merely  doubles  (2.36);  in  addition  to  this  the 
thorax  also  lengthens,  as  we  have  already  seen. 

Proportion,  Shape  and  Dimensions  of  the  Thorax. — In  the  adult 
normal  man  we  find  the  following  proportions :  The  distance  between 
the  mammary  papillae  is  about  equal  to  the  antero-posterior  diam- 
eter of  the  thorax  (hence  the  papillae  indicate  the  depth  of  chest) 
and  is  also  perceptibly  equal  to  one-half  the  breadth  of  the  shoulders 
(measured  between  the  two  acromia),  which,  by  the  way,  is  the 
maximum  transverse  dimension  of  the  skeleton. 

This  maximum  dimension  (the  biacromial  distance)  may  be 
regarded  as  an  index  of  the  skeletal  development;  and  Godin 
takes  its  proportion  to  the  transverse  thoracic  diameter  (the  hori- 
zontal distance  between  the  two  vertical  lines  drawn  from  the  arm- 
pits, in  the  plane  of  the  mammary  papillae,  see  Chapter  VII, 
Technique)  in  order  to  estimate  the  proportional  relation  between 


298  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

the  skeleton  and  the  organs  of  respiration.  Since  in  the  course  of 
growth  the  thorax  broadens,  that  is,  the  transverse  diameter  in- 
creases more  than  the  antero-posterior,  we  should  expect  to  find 
that  in  the  course  of  evolution,  the  difference  between  the  trans- 
verse development  of  the  skeleton  and  the  lateral  development  of 
the  thorax  steadily  diminishes. 

It  happens,  on  the  contrary,  that  from  the  age  of  ten  years 
onward,  during  the  whole  puberal  development,  the  transverse 
diameter  of  the  thorax  steadily  becomes  less,  as  compared  with  the 
breadth  of  the  shoulders,  so  much  so  that  if  the  difference  was  at 
first  97  millimetres,  it  becomes  finally  116  millimetres.  According 
to  Godin,  this  indicates  that  the  thorax  does  not  obey  the  harmonic 
laws  of  the  development  of  the  skeleton  as  a  whole,  but  that,  owing 
to  causes  of  adaptation  (the  school!)  it  remains  definitely  inferior 
to  the  development  which  it  might  have  attained,  and  consequently 
results  in  throwing  the  organism  out  of  its  physiological  equilib- 
rium. In  fact,  if  we  make  men  raise  their  arms,  especially  men 
of  the  student  class,  a  certain  hollowness,  which  is  aesthetically 
displeasing,  is  revealed  along  the  sides  of  the  thorax.  This  defi- 
ciency is  corroborated,  according  to  Godin's  studies,  by  his  ob- 
servation of  another  correspondence  in  the  measurements  of  the 
thorax.  In  addition  to  the  customary  measurements,  Godin 
introduced,  besides  the  well-known  and  classic  thoracic  perimeter — 
which  is  the  circumference  taken  in  the  horizontal  plane  passing 
through  the  nipples — two  other  circumferences :  one  of  them  higher 
up,  the  subaxillary  circumference,  which  includes  a  large  proportion 
of  the  pectoral  and  dorsal  muscles ;  and  the  other  lower  down,  the 
submammary  circumference,  which  determines  solely  the  measure- 
ment of  the  thoracic  skeleton,  since  the  intercostal  muscles  are 
practically  the  only  ones  which  descend  to  this  level.  These  two 
circumferences  are  to  be  considered  together,  according  to  Godin, 
as  expressing  the  relation  between  the  organs  of  respiration  and  the 
muscular  mass.  In  complete  repose,  the  subaxillary  circumference 
is  much  greater  than  the  submammary;  but  at  the  moment  of 
maximum  inspiration  the  latter  should  become  equal  to  the  former; 
hence,  the  difference  between  the  submammary  circumference  in 
repose  and  during  inspiration  furnishes  an  indirect  index  of  the 
respiratory  capacity,  and  the  subaxillary  circumference  is  a  test  of 
individual  capacity.  Godin  notes  that  inspiration  almost  never 
succeeds  in  attaining  an  equality  between  the  two  circumferences. 


THE  THORAX  299 

Shape  of  the  Thorax. — In  regard  to  the  shape,  which  stands  in 
relation  to  the  thoracic  index,  it  is  found  to  vary  according  to  indi- 
vidual types;  in  fact  the  index  itself,  although  showing  a  mean  aver- 
age of  75,  oscillates  between  the  extremes  of  65  and  85.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  brachy cephalic  races  have  a  deeper  thorax,  i.e., 
having  a  cross-section  of  more  rounded  form ;  the  dolichocephalics, 
on  the  contrary,  have  a  more  flattened  thorax  in  the  antero- 
posterior  direction  (these  races,  such  as  the  negroes,  are  more 
predisposed  to  contract  pulmonary  tuberculosis).  Consequently 
there  is  a  correspondence  in  type  between  the  head  and  the  thorax. 
In  the  measurements  taken  by  me  among  the  women  of  Latium 
the  results  show  that  the  brachycephalics  had  an  average  depth  of 
thorax  amounting  to  188  millimetres  and  the  dolichocephalics  only 
181  millimetres,  while  the  transverse  diameters  were  very  nearly 
equal:  241  millimetres  in  the  brachycephalics,  and  240  millimetres 
in  the  dolichocephalics.  Hence,  the  resultant  thoracic  index  of 
78  for  the  brachycephalics  and  75  for  the  dolichocephalics. 

Such  differences  in  the  index  indicate  also  differences  in  the 
formation  of  the  thorax :  that  it  is  more  or  less  flattened  in  the  doli- 
chocephalics, and  more  prominent  in  the  brachycephalics.  There 
is  a  corresponding  diversity  of  form  in  the  breasts  of  the  women: 
the  dolichocephalic  races  have  more  elongated  breasts  (pear- 
shaped),  the  brachycephalics  more  rounded. 

The  shape  of  the  thoracic  section  is  at  the  present  time  taken 
into  careful  consideration,  especially  in  medicine,  because  it  is 
apt  to  reveal  predispositions  to  diseases. 

It  may  be  obtained  by  the  aid  of  the  cyrtometer  (see  chapter  on 
Technique).  At  the  present  day,  however,  exceedingly  complicated 
instruments  have  been  constructed,  which,  by  the  aid  of  record- 
ing indexes,  give  a  direct  representation  of  the  shape  of  the  tho- 
racic perimeter,  together  with  its  modifications  and  respiratory 
oscillations. 

Since  these  instruments  are,  for  the  present,  very  far  removed 
from  widespread  practical  use,  we  may  adopt  as  an  excellent 
method  for  determining  the  shape  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  di- 
mensions of  the  thorax,  that  of  Maurel,  in  his  research  regarding 
''the  square  surface  of  the  thoracic  section." 

Having  determined  the  anthropometric  points,  Maurel  passes 
strips  of  metal  (stiff  enough  to  retain  the  shape  given  them)  around 


300 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


the  thorax,  after  the  fashion  of  a  tape-measure,  first  around  one 
half,  and  then  around  the  other. 

Next  he  places  these  metal  strips  (still  retaining  the  shape  given 
them  by  contact  with  the  thorax),  upon  a  sheet  of  especially  pre- 
pared paper,  marked  in  squares,  and  traces  upon  it  the  inner  out- 
line of  the  strips. 

The  two  halves  must  be  made  to  coincide  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  reproduce  faithfully  the  thoracic  section,  both  in  form  and  in 
dimension. 

By  adding  up  the  squares  contained  within  the  outline  we  ob- 
tain the  area  of  the  section. 


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This  method  is  the  only  really  rational  method  for  studying  the 
thorax;  and  its  simplicity,  practicality  and  graphic  representation 
recommend  it  as  a  valuable  aid  to  pedagogic  anthropology. 

There  is,  for  example,  an  abnormal  form  of  thorax,  which  I  have 
very  often  met  with  in  deficient  children.  It  consists  in  an  ex- 
aggerated curve  of  the  posterior  costal  arches,  which  consequently 
form  a  very  sharp  angle  with  the  vertebral  column,  which  is  notably 
indented,  while  the  sternum  is  also  depressed  in  a  groove,  and 
occupies  a  plane  posterior  to  that  of  the  ribs.  The  section  of  the 
thorax,  in  this  case,  approaches  the  form  of  a  figure  8;  and  the 
thoracic  perimeter  would  not  represent  the  true  measurement 
because  it  would  include  the  empty  spaces  left  by  the  front  and 


THE  THORAX  301 

back  depressions.  The  thoracic  index  would  also  give  a  false  idea 
of  the  facts,  because  the  antero-posterior  diameter  would  be  no- 
where so  short  as  at  the  centres  of  measurement  for  this  diameter. 

The  only  method  for  representing  the  true  shape  and  area  of 
this  type  of  thorax  is  that  employed  by  Maurel. 

Anomalies  of  Shape. — In  addition  to  the  preceding  anomaly, 
very  frequent  in  degenerates,  and  associated  with  a  deficient  devel- 
opment of  the  lungs  and  with  physical  weakness,  there  are  numerous 
other  anomalies.  Among  others,  those  that  principally  deserve 
attention  are  the  funnel-shaped  or  consumptive  thorax,  in  which 
the  longitudinal  diameter  is  excessive ;  the  thoracic  frame  is  greatly 
elongated  and  the  ribs  descend  to  a  very  low  level;  this  type  of 
thorax  is  frequent  in  neuropathic  women,  and,  according  to  Fere, 
is  associated  with  degeneration. 

The  opposite  form  is  the  barrel-shaped  thorax,  in  which  the  pre- 
vailing diameter  is  the  antero-posterior;  it  is  very  prominent  and  is 
frequently  met  with  in  persons  who  are  subject  to  forms  of  asthma, 
maladies  of  the  heart,  etc. 

The  bell-shaped  thorax  is  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  is  char- 
acterised by  an  accompanying  exceptional  brevity  of  the  longi- 
tudinal diameter,  which  causes  it  to  resemble  the  infantile  thorax 
(arrest  of  morphological  development). 

The  grooved  thorax  is  the  one  described  above  as  common  among 
the  mentally  deficient. 

A  considerable  importance  attaches  to  a  form  of  thorax  dis- 
tinguished by  the  shortness  of  the  clavicles,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  chest  remains  flat,  paralytic  or  fiat  thorax  (habitus  phthisicus) . 
The  flattened  appearance  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  chest  cannot 
rise  in  front,  and  the  shoulders,  being  cramped  by  the  shortness 
of  the  clavicles,  curve  forward,  while  the  scapulae  stand  out  from 
the  plane  of  the  back  and  spread  themselves  like  wings  (scapulae 
alatae).  I  have  met  with  this  form  in  deficients,  accompanied  by 
such  laxity  of  articulations,  that  it  was  possible  to  grasp  the  points 
of  the  shoulders  and  draw  them  together  until  they  very  nearly 
met  in  front. 

This  form  of  thorax  is  characteristically  predisposed  to  pulmon- 
ary tuberculosis,  and  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  macroscelous 
types. 

The  commonest  deformities  of  the  thorax  are  those  associated 

with  rachitis. 
20 


302  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

One  of  the  forms  regarded  as  being  rachitic  in  origin  is  the  keel- 
shaped  thorax,  in  which  the  sternum  is  thrust  forward  and  isolated 
along  its  median  line,  like  the  keel  of  a  boat. 

But  the  thoracic  deformities  due  unquestionably  to  rickets  are 
of  the  well-known  types  that  go  popularly  under  the  name  of 
hunchback,  and  are  accompanied  by  curvatures  of  the  vertebral 
column.  The  first  admonitory  symptoms  are  shown  by  the  so- 
called  rachitic  rosary,  i.e.,  by  the  small  swellings  due  to  enlargement 
of  the  ends  of  the  ribs  at  their  point  of  attachment  to  the  sternum. 
Subsequently,  the  softened  ribs  become  misshapen  in  various 
ways,  especially  from  the  fourth  rib  downward,  the  upper  ribs 
being  fastened  and  sustained  by  the  thoracic  girdle  and  by  the  mus- 
cles. The  curvatures  of  the  vertebral  column  which  accompany 
rickets  are  scoliosis  or  lateral  deviation  (frequent  in  school-children) 
and  kyphosis,  or  deviation  in  a  backward  curve ;  for  the  most  part 
these  two  curvatures  occur  together,  so  that  the  vertebral  column 
is  thrust  outward  and  at  the  same  time  is  twisted  to  one  side: 
kypho-scoliosis. 

Pedagogical  Considerations. — The  following  considerations  are 
the  natural  sequence  of  what  has  been  said  above.  Deficiency  of 
the  thorax  is  one  of  the  stigmata  left  by  the  school,  which  in  this 
way  tends  to  make  the  younger  generations  feeble  and  physiolog- 
ically unbalanced. 

The  exaggerated  importance  which  is  given  to  the  school 
benches  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  deformities  of  the  vertebral 
column  deserves  to  be  put  aside  and  forgotten,  as  an  aberration  of 
false  hygiene.  The  bench  will  not  prevent  restriction  of  the  tho- 
rax; before  reaching  the  critical  point  which  the  improved  school 
bench  is  intended  to  prevent,  many  impoverishments  of  the  or- 
ganism, fatal  to  robustness  and  health,  and  often  to  life  itself  (pre- 
disposition to  tuberculosis!)  have  been  incurred;  and  there  is  no 
other  remedy  to  obviate  them  than  a  reform  in  pedagogic  methods. 
The  admonitory  fact  that  neglected,  despised,  half-starved  children 
have  an  enormous  advantage  in  the  development  of  the  thorax  over 
the  more  intelligent  children  who  are  well-fed  and  carefully  guarded, 
and  solely  because  the  former  are  free  to  run  the  streets,  ought  to 
point  the  direction  in  which  we  should  look  for  means  of  helping  the 
new  generations  hygienically.  They  have  need  of  free  movement 
and  of  air.  The  recreation  rooms  which  tend  to  keep  the  children 
of  the  street  shut  up  indoors  even  during  recess  are  taking  from  the 


THE  THORAX  303 

children  of  the  people  the  sole  advantage  that  still  remained  to 
them.  Try  to  realize  that  these  children  are  obliged  to  sleep  in 
dark,  crowded  environments,  and  that  every  night,  during  the 
period  of  sleep,  they  suffer  from  such  acute  poisoning  by  carbon 
dioxide  that  they  frequently  awaken  in  the  morning  with  severe 
pains  in  the  head.  The  life  of  the  streets  is  their  salvation.  We 
condemn  children  to  death,  under  the  delusion  that  we  are  working 
for  their  moral  good;  a  perverted  human  soul  may  be  led  back  to 
righteousness ;  but  a  consumptive  chest  can  never  again  become 
robust.  Let  those  who  talk  of  education  and  morality  and  similar 
themes  be  sure  that  they  are  benefactors  and  not  executioners,  and 
let  those  who  wish  to  do  good  seek  the  light  of  science. 

Curvatures  of  the  vertebral  column,  such  as  lordosis  and 
kyphosis,  cannot  be  considered  solely  in  relation  to  the  thorax, 
but  in  relation  to  the  pelvis  as  well,  because,  especially  in  lordosis, 
the  lumbar  vertebrae  are  also  involved,  while  the  pelvis  also  suf- 
fers a  characteristic  deformity. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PELVIS 

Anatomical  Note. — The  five  lumbar,  the  five  sacral  and  the  four 
coccygeal  vertebrae  constitute  the  lumbar  and  sacro-coccygeal  sec- 
tion of  the  vertebral  column. 

The  sacrum,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  five  sacral  vertebrae, 
appears  in  the  adult  in  the  form  of  a  bone  that  narrows  rapidly 
from  above  downward  in  a  general  curve  whose  convex  side  is 
turned  inward.  The  coccyx  has  the  importance  of  being  a  real 
and  actual  caudal  appendage,  reduced  in  man  to  its  simplest  ana- 


Fio.  127. — Skeleton  of  Pelvis,  Seen  from  Above. 

tomical  expression.  On  each  side  of  the  sacrum  the  two  ossa 
innominata  or  hip-bones  are  attached,  constituting  a  sort  of  massive 
girdle  (cinctura  pelvica),  serving  as  point  of  attachment  for  the 
lower  limbs,  while  at  the  same  time  it  sustains  the  entire  weight  of 
the  body  and  the  abdominal  viscera.  These  two  bones  are  made 
up  of  three  separate  parts:  an  upper  part,  very  broad  and  rather 
thin  (the  ilium,  which  constitutes  the  flank  or  hip),  one  in  front 
(the  os  pubis),  and  a  third  behind,  quite  massive,  and  shaped  like 

304 


THE  PELVIS  305 

the  letter  V  (the  ischium).  The  two  ossa  innominata  and  the  os 
sacrum  form  the  pelvis  or  pelvic  basin,  a  broad  cavity  with  bony 
walls  that  are  by  no  means  complete,  within  which  are  a  portion  of 
the  digestive  organs  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  organs  belonging 
to  the  genito-urinary  system.  The  pelvis  supports  the  vertebral 
column  and  is  in  turn  supported  by  the  lower  limbs,  in  quite 
marvellous  equilibrium. 

The  maximum  sexual  differences  of  the  skeleton  are  in  relation 
to  the  pelvis ;  in  woman  the  iliac  bones  form  a  far  ampler  basin ;  in 
man,  the  pelvis  is  higher  and  more  confined  and  formed  of  more 
solid  bones;  but  it  is  not  broader.  But  where  the  difference  is 
most  apparent  is  in  the  pelvic  aperture  (see  Fig.  127)  which  divides 
the  pelvis  into  two  parts,  the  upper  or  great  pelvis  and  the  lower  or 
small  pelvis.  This  aperture  has  distinguishing  marks  that  differ 
widely  between  the  sexes ;  in  woman  it  is  rounder,  in  man  it  is  more 
elongated  from  front  to  back  and  is  narrowed  toward  the  pubis. 
One  of  the  most  important  points  of  measurement  in  anthropology 
and  in  obstetrics  is  the  extreme  anterior  apex  of  the  superior 
border  of  the  ilium  or  crista  iliaca  antero-superior.  The  woman 
in  whom  this  dimension  (the  bis-iliac)  is  less  than  250  millimetres 
cannot  give  birth  naturally ;  similarly  the  woman  who  has  a  promi- 
nent os  pubis  (due  to  rachitis)  will  owe  the  attainment  of  maternity 
to  the  intervention  of  surgery,  and  perhaps  even  of  the  Csesarean 
operation. 

There  are  also  many  ethnical  differences  in  the  pelvis :  brachy- 
cephalics  (the  mongolian  race)  have  a  broader  and  shallower  pelvis 
than  the  dolichocephalics,  who,  on  the  contrary,  have  a  deeper  and 
narrower  pelvis  (the  negroes).  The  same  thing  is  met  with,  not- 
withstanding its  intermixture,  in  our  own  race :  blond,  brachyceph- 
alic  women  have  a  wider  pelvis  than  brunette,  dolichocephalic 
women. 

Accordingly,  cranium,  thorax  and  pelvis  correspond  in  one  and 
the  same  ethnic  type. 

The  abdomen  extends  from  the  arch  of  the  diaphragm  to  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  pelvis.  It  contains  all  the  viscera  of  ali- 
mentation :  the  digestive  system  together  with  the  glands  belong- 
ing to  it;  the  liver  and  pancreas,  besides  the  renal  system  and,  in 
women,  the  organs  of  generation  (uterus  and  ovaries).  The 
diaphragmatic  arch,  having  its  convex  side  uppermost,  enters  the 
thoracic  frame  as  far  as  the  first  dorsal  vertebra.  The  intestinal 


306  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

mass  is  more  noticeable  and  prominent  in  persons  having  a  narrow 
pelvis;  in  children,  for  example,  the  abdomen  is  very  prominent. 

Growth  of  the  Pelvis. — In  the  skeleton  of  the  new-born  child  the 
pelvis  differs  from  that  of  the  adult  in  two  particulars :  height  and 
direction.  The  pelvis  is  low  in  the  new-born  child  and  higher 
in  the  adult.  The  central  axis  is  more  oblique  from  front  to  back 
(in  the  higher  mammals  the  axis  of  the  pelvis  is  almost  central) ; 
in  the  adult,  on  the  contrary,  this  axis  tends  to  straighten  up,  to  the 
point  of  becoming  nearly  vertical,  in  relation,  that  is,  to  the  erect 
ji  position  of  man.  Hence  in  the  course  of 

growth  the  pelvis  not  only  becomes  propor- 
tionally higher,  but  it  undergoes  a  rotary 
movement  around  the  cotyloid  axis;  this 
movement  has  the  effect  of  elevating  the 
pubis  and  bringing  the  ischium  forward. 

The  vertebral  column  rests  upon  the 
s*  *  j      sacrum,  which  is  the  retrocotyloid  portion 
x  \\  of  the  pelvis,  and  its  pressure  tends  mechan- 

-^  ically  to  straighten  the  pelvis  (see  diagram, 

*&  Fig.  128).    This  process  of  straightening 

has  certain  limits,  and  is  dependent  upon 
the  form  of  curvature  of  the  vertebral  col- 
FlG>  128-  umn ;  if  this  is  exaggerated,  as  in  lordosis, 

the  weight  is  thrown  further  forward,  almost  over  the  cotyles; 
consequently,  the  elevation  of  the  pelvis  is  not  properly  accom- 
plished (low  pelvis  found  in  lordotics).  If,  on  the  contrary,  the 
lumbar  curvature  is  wanting  or  reversed  (kyphosis),  the  pres- 
sure of  the  column  is  thrown  backward  and  the  straightening  up  of 
the  pelvis  is  exaggerated  (high  pelvis  found  in  kyphotics).  Inde- 
pendently of  pathological  deformities,  there  are  various  forms  of 
lumbar  curvature  in  the  vertebral  column  that  are  normal  oscilla- 
tions, or  oscillations  acquired  through  adaptation. 

An  exaggerated  lumbar  curvature  or  saddle-back  is  found  in 
children  accustomed  to  carry  heavy  loads  upon  their  shoulders;  a 
diminished  curvature  is  found  in  children  constrained  to  remain  in 
a  sitting  posture  for  many  hours  a  day.  The  sitting  posture  tends 
to  cancel  the  lumbar  inward  curve;  consequently,  while  children 
are  in  school  they  are  promoting  the  elevation  of  their  pelvis. 

The  elevation  of  the  pelvis  proceeds  rapidly  at  the  fifteenth 


THE  PELVIS  307 

year,   during  puberty,  when  the  muscular  masses  become  more 
solid. 

A  woman  is  not  fitted  for  motherhood,  even  if  physically  de- 
veloped, so  long  as  her  pelvis  has  not  rotated  normally.  But  if 
the  rotation  is  exaggerated  (due  to  prolonged  sitting  posture  during 
years  of  growth),  this  is  very  unfavourable  to  normal  childbirth. 
In  rickets,  associated  with  kyphosis,  there  is  a  form  of  exaggerated 
rotated  pelvis  (pubis  high).  The  laborious  "modern"  childbirth, 
and  the  dangerous  childbirth  in  the  case  of  women  who  have  de- 
voted much  time  to  study,  must  be  considered  in  connection  with 
these  artificial  anomalies.  Free  movement  and  gymnastics  have 
for  this  reason,  in  the  case  of  women,  an  importance  that  extends 
from  the  individual  to  the  species. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  LIMBS 

THE  study  of  the  limbs  is  of  great  importance,  because,  although 
it  is  the  special  province  of  the  bust  to  contain  the  organs  of  vege- 
tative life,  it  is  the  limbs  which  render  it  useful.  In  fact,  it  is  the 
lower  limbs  which  control  our  locomotion  and  the  upper  limbs 
which  execute  the  labour  of  mankind. 

One  characteristic  of  man,  equally  with  that  of  standing  in  an 
erect  position,  supported  only  on  the  lower  limbs,  is  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  upper  limbs,  which  are  raised  from  the  ground  and 
relieved  of  the  function  of  locomotion — a  function  that  still  con- 
tinues in  all  other  mammals,  excepting  the  anthropoid  apes,  whose 
upper  limbs  are  extremely  long  and  barely  escape  the  earth,  and 
serve  the  animal  merely  as  an  aid  and  a  support  in  walking.  The 
birds,  although  supported  on  their  hind  limbs  alone,  nevertheless 
have  their  fore  limbs  assigned  to  the  sole  office  of  wings  for  the 
transportation  of  their  bodies. 

Consequently,  the  free  and  disposable  upper  limb,  peculiar  to 
mankind,  would  seem  to  mark  a  new  function  in  the  biologic  scale 
— human  labour. 

Anatomy  of  the  Skeleton  of  the  Limbs. — In  contrast  to  the  bust, 
the  limbs  have  an  internal  skeleton,  adapted  solely  to  the  function 
of  support  (not  of  protection).  The  bones  are  covered  with  masses 
of  striped  muscles,  which  have  as  their  special  function  voluntary 
movement,  that  is  to  say,  obedience  to  the  brain. 

The  upper  and  lower  limbs  correspond  numerically,  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  bones  is  analogous;  and  this  holds  true  for  all 
the  higher  vertebrates.  The  nearest  bones,  those  that  are  attached 
to  the  trunk,  are  single  in  all  four  limbs.  Then,  just  as  though 
branching  out,  they  next  double  in  number,  and  then  multiply 
successively  as  we  approach  the  extremities  of  the  limbs.  Thus 
the  forearm  and  the  lower  leg  have  two  bones,  and  the  hands  and 
feet  have  many. 

In  the  upper  arm  we  have  the  humerus,  in  the  thigh  the  femur, 
in  the  forearm  the  ulna  and  radius  (the  ulna  is  situated  on  the 

308 


THE  LIMBS  309 

same  side  as  the  little  finger  and  the  radius  on  that  of  the  thumb), 
in  the  lower  leg  the  tibia  and  fibula.  Then  come  the  many  short 
bones  (eight  in  the  carpus  and  seven  in  the  tarsus)  which  in  the 
hand  form  the  wrist  or  carpus,  and  in  the  foot  the  ankle  or  instep, 
the  tarsus.  These  are  followed  by  other  long  bones  (five  in  the 
hand  and  five  in  the  foot),  which  constitute  the  metacarpus  and 
metatarsus,  and  these  in  turn  by  the  long  bones  of  the  phalanges 
(fingers  and  toes),  which  grow  successively  smaller  toward  the 
extremities  and  are  successively  named  proximal,  middle  and  distal 
phalanges  (phalangettes).  These  last  are  missing  in  the  thumb  and 
the  big  toe.  In  conjunction  with  the  last  phalanges,  the  fingers 
and  toes  are  protected  by  nails. 

The  Growth  of  the  Limbs. — Recent  studies,  conducted  principally 
by  Godin  in  France,  author  of  the  classic  work  upon  growth,  have 
demonstrated  that  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs  obey  certain  special 
laws  of  biologic  growth. 

While  a  long  bone  is  growing  in  length  it  does  not  grow  in  width 
or  thickness,  and  while  it  is  increasing  in  thickness  it  does  not  gain 
in  length;  hence  the  lengthening  of  the  bones  takes  place  in  alter- 
nate periods;  during  the  period  of  repose  relative  to  growth  in 
length,  the  bone  gains  in  thickness. 

I  have  already  explained,  in  connection  with  the  stature,  that 
we  owe  the  growth  of  the  long  bones  to  a  variety  of  formative  ele.- 
ments,  the  cartilages  of  the  epiphyses,  which  control  the  growth 
in  length  of  the  long  bones,  and  the  enveloping  membrane  of  the 
body  of  the  bone,  the  periosteum,  which  presides  over  the  growth 
in  thickness. 

The  above  mentioned  alternation  in  the  growth  of  the  bones 
must  therefore  be  attributed  to  an  alternation  in  the  action  of  these 
various  formative  elements  of  the  bones. 

In  the  case  of  two  successive  long  bones  (for  example,  the  hu- 
merus  and  radius,  the  femur  and  tibia,  the  metacarpus  and  pha- 
langes, etc.),  they  alternate  in  their  growth;  while  one  of  them  is 
lengthening,  the  other  is  thickening ;  consequently  the  growth  of  a 
limb  in  length  is  not  simultaneous  in  all  the  bones,  but  takes  place 
alternately  in  the  successive  bones.  During  the  time  when  the 
growth  devolves  upon  the  longest  bone,  the  limbs  show  the  greatest 
rate  of  increase  in  length,  and  when,  on  the  contrary,  it  devolves 
upon  the  shortest  bone,  the  growth  is  less ;  but  in  either  case  it 
continues  to  grow. 


310  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  growth  of  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs  proceeds  by  alternate 
periods  of  activity  and  repose,  which  succeed  each  other  regularly. 

These  periods  of  activity  and  repose  occur  inversely  in  each  two 
successive  bones. 

The  periods  of  repose  from  growth  in  length  are  utilised  for 
gain  in  thickness,  and  reciprocally.  The  long  bones  lengthen  and 
thicken  alternately,  and  not  simultaneously. 

It  is  only  at  the  age  of  puberty  (fifteenth  year)  that  a  complete 
simultaneity  of  growth  takes  place,  after  which  epoch  the  growth 
in  stature  and  length  of  limb  diminishes,  yielding  precedence  to 
that  of  the  vertebral  column. 

When  the  complete  development  of  the  bodily  proportions  is 
attained  (eighteenth  year),  the  length  of  the  lower  limbs  is  equal 
to  one-half  the  stature. 

When  the  upper  limbs  are  extended  vertically  along  the  sides 
of  the  body,  the  tip  of  the  middle  finger  reaches  the  middle  point  of 
the  thigh,  while  the  wrist  coincides  with  the  ischium  (hip-bone). 
The  total  spread  of  the  arms  is,  on  an  average,  equal  in  length  to 
the  stature. 

The  proportions  between  the  lower  limbs  and  the  bust,  resulting 
from  the  attainment  of  complete  individual  development,  deter- 
mine the  types  of  stature :  macroscelia  and  brachyscelia.  Since  the 
order  of  growth  as  between  the  two  essential  portions  of  stature 
is  now  determined,  we  are  able  to  interpret  macroscelia  as  a  phe- 
nomenon of  infantilism  (arrested  development  of  the  bust). 

Malformations.  Excessive  Development  of  the  Nearer  and  Re- 
moter Segments. — But  there  are  other  proportions  that  are  of  inter- 
est to  us,  within  the  limbs  themselves.  Even  between  the  nearer 
and  remoter  portions  of  the  limbs  there  ought  to  be  certain  con- 
stant relations  (indices)  that  constitute  differential  characteristics 
between  the  various  human  races  and  between  man  and  the  ape. 
If  the  humerus  or  upper  arm  is  taken  as  equal  to  100,  the  radius 
or  forearm  is  equal  to  73  in  the  European,  while  in  the  negro  it  is 
equal  to  about  80.  Furthermore,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  ex- 
cessive length  of  the  forearm  is  an  ape-like  characteristic. 

Consequently,  the  measurement  of  the  segments  of  the  limbs  is 
important,  and  it  is  made  with  a  special  form  of  calipers;  when  the 
index  of  the  segments  deviates  from  the  accepted  normal  figure,  this 
constitutes  a  serious  anomaly,  frequently  found  in  degenerates, 
and  it  often  happens  that  an  excessive  development  of  the  remoter 


THE  LIMBS  311 

segments,  the  bones  of  the  extremities,  explains  the  excess  of  the 
total  spread  of  the  arms  over  the  stature,  unassociated  with  the 
macroscelous  type. 

Absence  of  Calf. — In  addition  to  this  fundamental  deviation 
from  normality,  there  are  other  malformations  worthy  of  note 
that  may  occur  in  the  limbs.  Such,  for  example,  is  a  deficiency  or 
absence  of  the  calf  of  the  leg.  The  well-turned  leg,  which  we 
admire  as  an  element  of  beauty  is  a  distinctive  human  trait  most 
conspicuous  among  the  races  that  we  regard  as  superior.  Among 
the  more  debased  negro  races  the  leg  is  spindling  and  without  any 
calf;  furthermore,  it  is  well  known  that  monkeys  have  no  calves, 
and  still  less  do  they  exist  among  the  lower  orders  of  mammals. 

Flat  Feet. — Another  important  malformation  relates  to  the 
morphology  of  the  feet.  Everyone  knows  the  distinctive  curve  or 
arch  of  the  foot,  and  the  characteristic  imprint  which  it  conse- 
quently leaves  on  the  ground.  Sometimes,  however,  this  arch  is 
missing,  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  all  on  the  same  plane  (flat  foot). 
The  dark-skinned  natives  of  Australia  have  flat  feet  as  one  of  their 
racial  characteristics ;  in  our  own  race  it  constitutes  an  anomaly  that 
is  frequent  among  degenerates.  Flat  feet  may  also  be  acquired  as 
the  result  of  certain  employments  (butler,  door-keeper,  etc.), 
which  compel  certain  individuals  to  remain  much  of  the  time  on 
foot.  But  in  such  cases  the  deformity  is  accompanied  by  a  patho- 
logical condition  (neuralgic  symptoms  and  local  myalgia).  Like 
all  malformations,  this  may  have  special  importance  in  connection 
with  infantile  hygiene  (the  position  of  the  pupil,  the  work  done  by 
the  children,  etc.). 

Opposable  Big  Toe. — Another  malformation  combined  with  a 
functional  anomaly,  that  is  never  met  with  as  a  deformity  resulting 
from  adaptation,  is  the  opposable  big  toe.  Sometimes  the  big  toe 
is  greatly  developed  and  slightly  curved  toward  the  other  toes,  and 
capable  of  such  movement  as  to  give  it  a  slight  degree  of  opposa- 
bility;  hence  the  foot  is  prehensile.  This  characteristic,  regularly 
present  in  monkeys,  is  so  far  developed  in  certain  degenerates  as  to 
make  it  possible  for  them  to  perform  work  with  their  feet  (knitting 
stockings,  picking  up  objects,  etc.) ;  so  that  this  class  of  degenerates, 
who  are  essentially  parasites,  solve  the  problem  of  supporting  them- 
selves by  trading  on  the  curiosity  of  the  public,  so  that,  by  strain- 
ing a  point,  we  might  bestow  upon  them  the  title  of  foot  labourers. 

Loose  and  Stiff  Joints. — Anomalies  may  also  occur  in  connection 


312  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

with  the  articulation  of  the  joints.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
they  are  extremely  loose  and  weak,  and  allow  the  bones  an  exces- 
sive play  of  movement ;  and,  if  the  lower  limbs  are  thus  affected,  it 
increases  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  equilibrium  when  standing 
erect  or  walking.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  happen  that  the  ar- 
ticulations are  too  stiff,  and  consequently  render  many  movements 
difficult,  especially  if  through  an  anomalous  development  of  the 
outer  coating  of  the  bone,  it  results  in  congenital  ankylosis. 

Curvature  of  the  Legs. — A  special  importance  attaches  to  cer- 
tain alterations  undergone  by  the  heads  of  the  bones  which  con- 
tribute to  the  formation  of  the  knee,  because  of  the  curvature  of 
the  leg  which  results  from  them  (rachitis,  paralysis).  The  leg 
may  become  bowed  outward  or  inward;  when  it  is  bowed  inward 
(knock-knees,  genu  valguni),  the  knees  strike  together  in 
walking;  when,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  bowed  outward,  the  result  is 
bow-legs  (genu  varum),  known  popularly  in  Italy  as  "legs  of 
Hercules,"  a  deformity  which  in  a  mild  degree  may  also  result  from 
the  practice  of  horse-back  riding. 

Club-foot  (Talipes). — Other  deviations  from  the  normal  posi- 
tion occur  in  connection  with  the  foot.  Certain  paralytic  children 
(Little's  disease)  walk  on  the  fore  part  of  the  foot  (talipes  equinus, 
"horse's  foot");  in  some  cases  the  foot  is  also  turned  inward,  and 
consequently  such  children  cross  their  legs  as  they  walk  (talipes 
equino-varus] . 

THE  HAND 

Cheiromancy  and  Physiognomy.  The  Hand  in  Figurative  Speech. 
The  High  and  Low  Type  of  Hand. — The  hand  is  in  the  highest 
degree  a  human  characteristic.  It  is  man's  organ  of  grasp  and 
of  the  sense  of  touch,  while  in  animals  these  two  functions  are 
relegated  to  the  mouth.  The  hand  has  always  claimed  the  atten- 
tion not  only  of  scientists  but  of  all  mankind  without  distinction. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  discover  the  secrets  of  human  person- 
ality from  the  hand,  and  a  whole  art  has  been  built  up,  called 
chiromancy,  which  endeavours  to  read  from  the  hand  man's 
destiny  and  psychic  personality,  just  as  physiognomy  was  the  art 
of  interpreting  the  character  from  the  face. 

Chiromancy  was  an  accredited  art  as  far  back  as  the  days  of 
ancient  Greece,  and  it  also  had  a  great  vogue  in  the  middle  ages; 
while  to-day  it  is  out  of  date  and  superseded,  or  perhaps  is  destined 


THE  LIMBS  313 

to  rise  again  in  some  new  form,  just  as  physiognomy  has  risen 
again  in  the  study  of  "expressions"  of  the  face  and  the  imprints 
which  they  leave  behind  them.  Scientists  also  have  made  the 
hand  the  object  of  their  careful  consideration;  and  the  result  of 
their  researches  shows  that  the  hand  really  does  contain  individual 
characteristics  that  are  not  only  interesting  but,  up  to  a  certain 
point,  are  revelations  of  personality.  A  written  word,  a  clasp  of 
the  hand,  may  furnish  documents  for  the  study  of  the  individual. 
Graphology,  for  instance,  is  naturally  related  to  the  functional 
action  and  to  the  characteristics  of  the  hand  itself.  Gina  Lom- 
broso  has  recently  made  a  study  of  the  hand-clasp  in  its  relation 
to  character;  when  a  haughty  person  offers  his  hand,  he  has  the 
appearance  of  wishing  to  thrust  you  from  him;  the  miser  barely 
offers  the  tips  of  his  fingers;  the  timid  man  yields  a  moist  and 
chilly  hand  to  your  touch;  the  loyal  friend  makes  you  feel  the  whole 
vigor  of  his  hand  in  its  cordial  pressure. 

In  the  gesture  we  have  an  individual  form  of  linguistic  expres- 
sion. Consequently,  man  reveals  himself,  not  alone  through  his 
creative  part,  the  head,  but  also  through  its  obedient  servant, 
the  hand.  "The  hand  is  gesture,  gesture  is  visible  speech,  speech 
is  the  soul,  the  soul  is  man,  the  soul  of  man  is  in  the  hand." 

Furthermore,  we  can  judge  from  the  hand  whether  a  man  is 
fitted  for  work  or  not;  and  it  is  to  work  that  the  hand  owes  its 
human  importance.  The  first  traces  of  mankind  upon  earth  are 
not  remains  of  skeletons,  but  remains  of  work — the  splintered  stone. 
The  whole  history  of  social  evolution  might  be  called  the  history 
of  the  hand.  To  say  that  the  hand  is  the  servant  of  the  intelli- 
gence is  to  express  the  truth  in  too  restricted  a  way,  because  the 
intelligence  is  nourished  and  developed  through  the  products  of 
the  hand,  as  by  degrees  the  work  of  the  latter  transformed  the 
environment.  Hence,  the  history  of  our  intellectual  development, 
like  that  of  our  civilization,  is  based  upon  the  creative  work 
evolved  by  the  collaboration  of  hand  and  head.  And  so,  in  the 
orphan  asylums,  we  have  the  children  sing  the  hymn  to  the  hand, 
which  is  a  hymn  to  labuor  and  to  progress: 

"Our  hand  is  good  for  every  task." 

All  the  solemn  acts  of  life  require  the  cooperation  and  sanc- 
tion of  the  hand.  We  take  oath  with  the  hand;  marriage  is  per- 
formed by  uniting  the  hands  of  the  bridal  pair;  in  proof  of  friend- 


314  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

ship  or  to  seal  a  compact,  we  clasp  hands.  The  word  hand  has 
come  to  be  often  used  in  a  symbolic  sense  in  many  expressive 
phrases  possessing  a  social  and  moral  significance:  "Take  heed 
that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  does  not  fall  upon  you;"  "Pilate  washed 
his  hands;"  "to  put  oneself  into  another's  hands;"  "to  have  a 
lavish  hand;"  "to  sit  with  idle  hands"  or  "with  the  hands  in 
the  pockets;"  "one  hand  washes  the  other;"  "to  have  a  hand  in 
the  pie;"  "to  turn  one's  hand  to  something;"  "to  lend  a  final 
hand;"  "to  speak  with  the  hand  on  the  heart;"  "to  believe  the 
evidence  of  one's  hands,"  etc. 

And  this  high  and  symbolic  significance  given  to  the  hand 
dates  back  even  to  bible  times : 

Solomon  says:  "The  length  of  days  is  in  her  right  hand;  and 
in  her  left  hand  riches  and  honour"  (Prov.  3,  16). 

And  Moses:  "Therefore  shall  ye  lay  up  these  my  words  in 
your  soul  and  bind  them  for  a  sign  upon  your  hand"  (Deut.  11, 18). 

Attempts  have  recently  been  made  to  describe  the  "psycholog- 
ical types ' '  of  the  human  hand.  Zimmermann,  for  instance,  studies 
two  types  of  hand:  the  high  type,  delicate,  small,  slender,  with 
rounded,  tapering  fingers,  and  convex  nails;  a  hand  which  would 
indicate  a  fine  sensibility,  delicate  and  refined  sentiments,  a  well 
balanced  mind,  a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  a  strong  and  noble 
character.  And  there  is  the  low  type,  coarse,  short  and  stocky, 
with  thick  fingers  and  flat  nails;  an  index  of  sluggish  sensibilities, 
vulgar  sentiments  and  a  low  order  of  intelligence,  a  weak  will  and 
apathetic  character. 

In  accordance  with  the  theories  of  mechanics,  the  type  of  hand 
has  been  considered  in  relation  to  its  organic  use  and  morphological 
adaptation.  In  general,  the  hand  used  in  the  coarser  forms  of 
work  is  of  the  low  type;  the  high  type  of  hand  is  that  required  for 
nimble  and  fine  movements,  in  which  there  is  need  of  the  successive 
concurrence  of  all  those  delicate  little  groups  of  muscles  which  are 
able  to  act  independently  and  thus  give  to  this  organ  the  marvel- 
ous and  subtle  variety  of  movements  which  distinguish  it.  In 
regard  to  dimensions,  the  large,  heavy  hand  would  betoken  use, 
and  the  little  hand  disuse.  Therefore,  the  small  hand  may  be 
considered  as  a  stigma  of  parasitism,  a  distinction  which  at  the 
present  day  has  lost  its  nobility.  Excepting  in  so  far  as  the  "brain 
workers,"  who  make  themselves  useful  without  employing  their 
hands,  may  still  show  a  distinctive  smallness  of  these  members. 


THE  LIMBS  315 

We  should  not,  however,  adhere  solely  either  to  the  psycholog- 
ical theory  of  the  hand,  or  to  the  theory  of  adaptation;  it  is  neces- 
sary to  consider  the  characteristics  of  the  hand  from  several 
different  points  of  view. 

Dimensions. — The  dimensions  of  the  hand  bear  a  constant 
relation  to  the  stature  and  to  certain  partial  dimensions  of  the 
body,  while  the  various  parts  of  the  hand  preserve  constant 
reciprocal  proportions. 

As  far  back  as  in  the  time  of  Vitruvius  it  was  known  that  the 
human  hand  is  related  to  the  stature  in  the  proportion  of  10  to 
100.  This  is  a  very  important  fact  to  know,  because  the  propor- 
tion varies  in  the  inferior  races  and  in  the  anthropoid  apes,  the 
descent  in  the  scale  showing  a  corresponding  increase  of  length 
of  hand  relatively  to  the  stature.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the 
Mongolian  races  the  proportional  length  of  the  hand  is  12.50,  and 
in  the  higher  apes  it  equals  18.  Consequently  too  long  a  hand  is 
in  itself  an  anomaly  that  indicates  a  low  type  of  man;  it  is  to  be 
classed  with  those  anomalies  that  were  formerly  regarded  as 
atavistic  reversions,  phenomena  of  absolute  retrogression  in  the 
biological  scale. 

Relations  between  the  Hand  and  the  other  Dimensions  of  the  Body. 
—The  closed  fist,  taking  the  extreme  outside  measurement  be- 
tween the  metacarpo-phalangeal  articulations,  corresponds  to  the 
breadth  of  the  heart. 

The  length  of  the  hand  corresponds  to  the  height  of  the  visage, 
and  also  to  the  distance  intervening  between  the  sternal  incisura 
and  the  auricular  foramen;  it  is  also  equal  to  the  distance  between 
the  two  nipples,  and  therefore  also  corresponds  to  the  depth  of 
the  chest. 

There  may  be  hands  which  are  either  excessively  large  or  much 
too  small,  and  that  are  really  marks  of  degeneration.  An  exces- 
sive volume  of  these  members  is  called  megalomelia,  and  an  exces- 
sive smallness  oligomelia. 

We  may  encounter  an  extremely  small  hand  quite  as  often  in 
the  son  of  an  alcoholic  labourer  as  in  the  son  of  a  degenerate  aris- 
tocrat; frequently  men  whose  parents  were  mentally  deficient  have 
small,  delicate,  almost  effeminate  hands. 

The  Proportions  between  the  Various  Segments  of  the  Hands.— 
The  length  of  the  middle  finger,  measured  from  the  digito-palmar 
plica  or  fold,  ought  to  equal  the  length  of  the  palm. 


316  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Hence  the  index  of  the  palm  should  be  the  proportion  between 
the  length  of  the  palm  itself  and  the  length  of  the  middle  finger. 
This  proportion  is  of  importance  because  it  has  certain  human 
characteristics;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  anthropoid  apes  the 
metacarpus  is  much  longer  than  the  fingers  and  the  palm  has  a 
far  lower  index  than  that  of  man.  In  degenerates  (thieves)  the 
hand  is  frequently  narrow  and  long. 

The  Proportions  of  the  Fingers. — If  the  first  and  second  articula- 
tions of  the  fingers  are  flexed,  leaving  the  third  extended,  we  find 
that  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger  reaches  to  the  point  where 
the  thenar  and  hypothenar  eminences  (fleshy  prominences  at  base 
of  palm)  are  nearest  to  each  other. 

This  basic  point  is  only  approximate  and  serves  to  tell  us 
whether  the  middle  finger  is  normal.  The  middle  finger  serves 
as  a  measure  for  the  others,  as  follows: 

The  index-finger  reaches  to  the  base  of  the  nail  of  the 

middle  finger. 
The  thumb,  to  the  middle  of  the  first  phalanx  of  the  middle 

finger. 

The  ring  finger,  to  the  middle  of  the  nail  of  the  middle  finger.* 
The  little  finger,  to  the  third  articulation  of  the  ring  finger. 

It  often  happens  that  the  development  of  the  ulnar  side  of 
the  hand — the  little  finger,  or  both  little  and  ring  finger  together 
— is  defective.  Sometimes  the  little  finger  is  not  only  extremely 
small,  but  a  special  malformation  renders  it  shorter  still  when  the 
hand  is  open;  the  second  phalanx  remains  flexed,  and  cannot  be 
extended.  Combined  with  the  shortness  of  such  fingers  there  is 
also  an  extreme  slenderness — cubital  oligodactylia.  It  is  a  far 
rarer  thing  to  find  similar  anomalies  in  the  case  of  the  index-finger. 
The  thumb,  on  the  contrary,  is  sometimes  extremely  short,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  has  slight  opposability. 

Functional  Characteristics. — What  characterises  the  functional 
action  of  the  human  hand  is  the  opposability  of  the  thumb.  There 
ought  to  be  a  perfect  movement  of  opposability  of  the  thumb  in 
respect  to  all  the  other  fingers;  but  many  imbecile  children  accom- 
plish this  movement  imperfectly.  The  mobility  of  the  thumb  is 
associated  with  a  group  of  muscles  situated  at  its  base  which  forms 
the  great  tenar  eminence  of  the  palm,  opposite  which,  in  corre- 

*  Many  authorities  maintain  that  the  normal  relation  between  the  index  and  ring  finger 
is  the  reverse  of  that  given  above;  abundant  examples  occur  in  favor  of  each  of  these 


THE  LIMBS  317 

spending  relation  to  the  little  finger  is  the  small  hypotenar  eminence. 
An  insufficient  development  of  these  palmar  eminences  represents 
a  serious  malformation,  which  entails  functional  disturbances. 
The  hand  of  the  monkey  is  flat. 

The  Nails. — We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  high  type  of  hand 
the  nails  should  be  convex  and  long,  and  that  in  the  low  type,  on 
the  contrary,  they  are  short  and  flat. 

The  normal  nail  should  extend  to  an  even  level  with  the  finger- 
tip. Manual  labour  should  normally  serve  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing the  nails  worn  down;  but  we,  who  are  not  hand-labourers, 
must  use  the  scissors,  in  order  to  maintain  the  normal  state. 

For,  if  they  were  not  worn  down,  the  nails  would  attain  an 
enormous  length,  like  the  nails  of  certain  kings  of  savage  tribes, 
who  as  a  badge  of  authority  have  such  long  nails  that  their 
hands  are  necessarily  kept  motionless;  these  kings  must  in  conse- 
quence be  waited  on,  even  for  the  smallest  need,  and  actually  be- 
come the  slaves  of  their  own  nails,  which  might  be  shattered  by  any 
sudden  movement  on  the  part  of  their  royal  possessor.  Long 
nails,  therefore,  are  a  sign  of  idleness,  while  at  the  same  time  they 
demand  a  great  deal  of  attention.  Accordingly,  let  us  repudiate 
the  fashion  of  long  nails. 

As  a  form  of  anomaly,  we  sometimes  meet  with  nails  of  such 
exaggerated  length  that  they  have  the  aspect  of  claws — onyco- 
gryposis;  or,  again,  an  almost  total  absence  of  nails,  which  are  re- 
duced to  a  narrow  transverse  strip — this  characteristic  is  often 
found  in  idiots,  and  is  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  from  child- 
hood such  persons  have  had  the  habit  of  "biting  their  nails." 

Sometimes  the  nails  are  exceedingly  dense,  or  actually  consist 
of  several  superimposed  layers,  so  rich  in  pigment  that  they  lose 
their  characteristic  transparency. 

This  condition  is  due  to  trophic  disorders  of  the  nails. 

Teratology  and  Various  Anomalies. — There  are  certain  mons- 
trosities that  sometimes  occur  in  connection  with  the  hand,  such 
as  hexadactylism  and  polydactylism,  or  hands  with  six  or  more 
fingers;  or  else  hands  with  less  than  five  fingers — syndactylism. 
There  may  even  be  a  congenital  absence  of  a  phalanx,  with  a 
consequent  notable  shortness  of  the  finger — brachydactylism. 

Another  sort  of  anomaly  frequently  found  in  deficients  consists 
of  an  excessive  development  of  the  interdigital  membrane,  to  the 
extent  of  giving  the  hand  the  appearance  of  being  web-fingered. 

21 


318  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

An  anomaly  of  minor  importance  consists  in  a  distortion  of  the 
fingers;  the  little  finger  has  one  of  its  phalanges  turned  backward. 
All  the  fingers  ought  to  be  in  contact  throughout  their  whole 
length,  and  not  leave  open  spaces  between  them. 

Lines  of  the  Palms. — The  lines  of  the  palms,  which  used  to  be 
of  so  much  importance  in  chiromancy,  are  now  taken  into  con- 
sideration even  in  anthropology,  being  studied  in  normal  and  ab- 
normal man,  and  also  in  the  hands  of  monkeys.  The  lines  of  the 
palms  are  three  in  number.  The  one  which  follows  the  curve  of 
the  tenar  eminence  is  known  in  chiromancy  as  the  line  of  life,  and, 
if  long,  deep  and  unbroken,  was  supposed  to  denote  good  health 
and  the  prospect  of  a  long  life;  in  anthropology  it  is  called  the 
biological  line.  The  second  crease,  which  ought  to  meet  the  former 
between  the  thumb  and  the  index-finger,  is  the  line  of  the  head,  or 
cephalic  line,  and  in  chiromancy  its  union  with  the  line  of  life  was 
supposed  to  denote  a  well-balanced  character. 

The  line  highest  up,  which  begins  between  the  index-  and  middle 
finger  and  extends  to  the  extreme  margin  of  the  palm,  is  the  line 
of  the  heart  or  the  cardiac  line,  which  in  chiromancy  is  supposed 
to  indicate  the  emotional  development  of  the  individual.  These 
lines  taken  together  form  a  semblance  of  the  letter  M,  and  are 
characteristically  and  gracefully  curved.  It  is  considered  as  an 
anomaly,  to  be  met  with  among  degenerates  and  even  in  mongo- 
loid  idiots,  to  lack  any  of  these  lines  (numerical  reduction)  or  to 
have  their  arrangement  distinctly  horizontal,  and  reminiscent  of 
the  hand  of  the  monkey. 

If  we  trace  backward  in  the  zoological  scale,  we  find  as  a  matter 
of  fact  that  to  begin  with,  there  were  no  lines  in  the  palms,  and 
then  there  appeared  a  single  crease  high  up,  such  as  we  still  find 
in  the  Cebus.  In  the  human  hand  Carrara  has  recently  made  a 
study  of  these  anomalies,  distinguishing  several  types.  In  the 
first  type  there  is  a  single  transverse  furrow.  In  the  second  type 
there  are  two  furrows  which,  however,  follow  a  definitely  straight 
and  horizontal  direction  and  consequently  are  parallel.  In  a 
third  type  a  single  transverse  furrow  is  associated  with  a  very  deep 
longitudinal  furrow  running  from  the  carpus  to  the  base  of  the 
index-  and  middle  finger — a  form  that  Carrara  has  found  only  in 
criminals.  Nevertheless,  many  idiots  exhibit  a  similar  longi- 
tudinal furrow,  due  to  a  peculiar  development  of  the  palmar 
aponeurosis. 


FIG.  129. — Imprint  of  human  hand,  showing  papillary  lines 
on  palm  and  fingers. 


THE  LIMBS  319 

The  disposition  of  the  furrows  in  the  palm  is  not  strictly  sym- 
metrical in  the  two  hands;  in  fact,  it  is  said  in  chiromancy  that 
the  right  hand  represents  our  natural  character,  and  our  left  hand 
the  character  which  we  have  acquired  in  the  course  of  living. 

Papillary  Lines. — For  some  time  past  the  papillary  lines  have 
been  attracting  the  attention  of  students,  in  regard  to  their  earliest 
appearance  (in  the  zoological  scale),  their  disposition  and  coin- 
plications.  They  were  already  spoken  of  by  Malpighi  and  Pur- 
kinje.  Alix  has  investigated  the  first  appearance,  in  the  animal 
scale,  of  these  lines  in  the  thoracic  and  pelvic  limbs,  and  concludes : 
"  The  greater  or  lesser  development  of  the  papillary  lines  seems  to 
bear  a  relation  to  the  higher  or  lower  position  of  the  group  to  which 
the  animal  belongs,  the  perfection  of  its  hand  and  the  degree  of  its 
intelligence." 

Morselli  has  studied  the  disposition  of  these  lines  in  monkeys. 
We  know  that  the  papillary  lines  bear  a  relation  to  the  exquisite 
delicacy  of  the  sense  of  touch.  The  primates  (higher  apes)  have 
on  their  finger-tips  patterns  that  are  far  simpler  than  our  own, 
resembling  geometric  figures,  among  which  the  principal  ones  are 
the  triangle,  the  circle,  and  forms  resembling  the  cross-section  of 
an  onion.  In  the  normal  human  hand,  on  the  contrary,  it  should 
be  impossible  to  distinguish  any  closed  figure.  The  resulting 
designs,  which  are  very  fine  and  complicated,  are  not  uniform  on 
all  the  fingers,  but  differ  from  finger  to  finger  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  evolution  ir  a  given  hand.  For  example,  there  ie  a 
certain  uniformity  of  design  in  cases  of  arrested  mental  develop- 
ment (imbeciles,  epileptics,  etc.).  This  variety  of  designs  pro- 
duces individual  characteristics  which  are  utilized  in  criminal 
anthropology  for  purposes  of  identification;  hence,  it  is  highly 
important  to  be  able  to  take  impressions  of  the  papillary  lines. 

Professor  Sante  de  Sanctis  has  quite  recently  invented  a 
practical  method  of  preserving  papillary  imprints  by  the  aid  of 
photography. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS 

Pigmentation  and  Cutaneous  Apparatus. — The  outer  covering 
of  the  body  possesses  an  importance  that  is  not  only  physiolog- 
ical, as  a  defense  of  the  living  animal,  but  biological  and  ethnical 
as  well.  In  fact,  the  covering  of  the  body  frequently  constitutes 
a  characteristic  of  the  species,  and  we  may  say  that  it  constitutes 
to  a  large  extent  the  aesthetics  of  coloration,  supplementing  that 
of  form.  In  the  covering  of  the  body  there  are  in  general  certain 
appendages  which  include  the  double  purpose  of  defense  and 
attraction,  as,  for  example,  the  scales  of  fishes,  the  quills  of  the 
porcupine,  the  marvellous  plumage  of  certain  birds,  the  furry 
coat  of  the  ermine.  Man,  on  the  contrary,  is  almost  completely 
deprived  of  any  covering  of  the  skin,  and  is  conspicuous  among 
all  animals  as  the  most  defenseless  and  naked.  Consequently, 
the  characteristics  of  the  skin  itself,  quite  apart  from  any  covering, 
assume  in  man  a  great  ethnic  importance,  especially  as  regards 
his  pigmentation.  In  fact,  it  is  well  known  that  the  fundamental 
classifications  of  the  human  races  due  to  Blumenbach  and  Lin- 
naeus are  based  upon  the  cutaneous  pigmentation  (white,  black, 
yellow  races,  etc.).  This  is  because  it  is  a  recognised  fact  that 
the  pigmentation  is  biologically  associated  with  race,  and  hence 
inalterable  and  hereditary,  in  the  same  way,  for  example,  as  the 
cephalic  index;  although  we  must  not  forget  the  modifications  of 
pigment  through  phenomena  due  to  adaptation  to  environment. 
This  would  lead  us  into  scientific  discussions  which  would  here 
be  out  of  place,  since  they  have  no  immediate  importance  to 
us  as  educators.  It  may  suffice  to  indicate  that  the  distribution 
of  racial  colour  should  not  be  studied  in  relation  to  temperature 
and  the  direction  of  the  sun's  rays,  but  rather  in  connection  with 
the  history  of  human  emigration;  because,  while  as  a  matter  of 
fact  it  is  true  that  there  are  races  at  the  equator  which  are  darker 
and  races  near  the  poles  which  are  fairer,  it  is  also  true  that  the 
Esquimaux,  for  instance,  are  a  dark  race,  while  in  Lybia  there  are 

320 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  321 

types  of  ashen  blond,  which  is  the  palest  blond  in  the  whole  range 
of  human  pigmentation. 

The  pigment  is  distributed  throughout  the  skin,  the  cutaneous 
appendages  and  the  iris. 

In  the  skin,  the  distribution  is  not  uniform,  there  being  some 
regions  of  the  body  that  have  more,  and  some  that  have  less;  it  is 
localised  in  the  Malpighian  mucous  layer,  i.e.,  the  granular,  ger- 
minative  layer  of  the  epidermis,  which  rests  directly  upon  the 
papillae  of  the  derma  or  corium. 

The  derma,  being  abundantly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  if 
seen  by  itself  would  appear  red;  but  this  color,  due  to  the  blood, 
is  concealed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  epidermis,  according 
as  the  latter  contains  more  or  less  pigment.  In  the  iris  of  the  eye 
and  in  the  pilif  erous  appendages  of  the  skin,  among  which  we  must, 
from  the  anthropological  point  of  view,  give  chief  place  to  the  hair 
of  the  head,  the  pigment  tends  to  accumulate,  producing  a  con- 
stantly deeper  shade. 

Pigmentation  constitutes  an  eminently  descriptive  character- 
istic, and  consequently,  in  all  attempts  to  determine  it,  must  be 
subject  to  all  manner  of  oscillations  in  judgment  on  the  part  of  the 
observer;  yet,  because  it  also  constitutes  an  ethnical  characteristic, 
it  deserves  to  be  determined  with  precision.  To  this  end  we  have 
in  anthropology  chromatic  charts,  corresponding  not  only  to  the 
various  shades  of  the  skin,  but  also  to  those  of  the  pilif  erous  ap- 
pendages and  of  the  iris.  They  consist  of  a  graduated  series  of 
colour-tones  extending  over  the  entire  possible  range  of  the  real 
colours  of  pigmentation  in  human  beings;  and  every  gradation  in 
tone  has  a  corresponding  number.  When  we  wish  to  use  the 
charts  practically,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  accurately  the 
precise  degree  of  pigmentation  of  a  given  person's  hair,  we  need 
only  to  compare  the  tone  of  the  hair  with  the  colours  of  the  chart, 
and,  having  identified  the  right  one,  to  note  the  corresponding 
number.  For  instance,  we  may  record:  "Pigmentation  of  hair 
=  34  Br.  (i.e.,  No.  34  in  Broca's  table).  Or,  again,  if  we  are  mak- 
ing a  more  complex  study  of  all  the  children  in  a  certain  school, 
we  may  say:  "The  chestnut  tones  (35,  42,  43  Br.)  constitute  87 
per  cent.,  the  remaining  percentage  consists  of  the  blond  shades 
(36,  37,  46  Br.).  And  in  the  case  of  the  skin  and  the  iris  the  pro- 
cedure is  analogous.  By  this  means  the  investigation  is  objective 
and  accurate. 


322 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


As  a  rule,  the  three  pigmentations  are  determined  in  accordance 
with  a  reciprocal  correspondence.  The  light  colourings,  as  well 
as  the  dark,  generally  go  together;  i.e.,  a  person  having  blond  hair 
has  also  light  eyes  and  a  fair  skin,  and  vice  versa — in  other  words, 
the  entire  organism  has  either  a  greater  or  less  accumulation  of 
pigment  in  all  its  centres  of  pigmentation.  Furthermore,  these 
anthropological  characteristics  are  accompanied  by  others  of  equal 
ethnical  importance,  such  as  the  stature,  the  cephalic  index,  etc.; 
and  all  of  them  combine  to  determine  an  ethnic  type  in  all  its 
complex  morphology. 

In  this,  as  in  all  other  anthropological  data,  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  the  limits  between  which  it  may  oscillate.  In  the  races 
of  mankind,  the  colour  of  the  skin  ranges  from  a  black  brown  to  a 
gray  brown,  to  brick  red,  to  yellow,  and  to  white;  but  among  the 
population  of  Italy,  and  among  Europeans  in  general  (excepting 
certain  localised  groups,  like  the  Lapps,  etc.),  the  variation  is  con- 
fined within  the  limits  of  the  so-called  white  tones,  that  is,  from 
brunette  to  a  sallow  white,  a  rosy  white,  or  a  florid  red,  with  each 
of  which  tints  there  are  special  corresponding  grades  of  pigmenta- 
tion for  hair  and  eyes,  and  also,  on  broad,  general  lines,  different 
ethnical  characteristics  oscillating  within  our  normal  limits  of 
stature  and  cephalic  index. 

All  of  which  may  be  summarised  in  the  following  table: 


Pigmentation 

Stature 

Cephalic  index 

Skin 

Hair 

Iris 

Brunette  

Black 

Black 

Medium  or  low 
Medium  or  high 

(Outside  of  ethnic 
the    red    colour 
abnormal) 

Dolichocephalic, 
Brachycephalic 

al  characteristics: 
of    the     hair    is 

Yellow-white  1 
Pink-  white.  .  .   [ 

Florid  red  

Light      chest- 
n  u  t     and 
blond. 
Red  

Chestnut  and 
blue. 

Gray.  . 

in  which  we  have  also  included  the  abnormal  colour  of  red  hair, 
which  plays  a  part  in  the  actual  colour  scale  of  Italian  pigmentation : 
not,  however,  as  a  racial  characteristic,  but  rather  as  a  deviation. 
In  addition  to  the  oscillation  of  limits,  we  should  also  study  in 
any  given  population  the  geographic  distribution  of  a  definite 
anthropological  datum.  This  must  also  be  done  in  the  case  of  the 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  323 

pigments.  Among  Livi's  splendid  charts,  there  is  one  regarding 
the  distribution  of  the  brunette  type  in  Italy.  From  this  it  appears 
that  the  greatest  prevalence  of  the  brunette  type  is  in  Sardinia 
and  Calabria,  and  that  in  general  there  is  a  prevalence  of  the  dark 
types  in  the  southern  districts;  while  the  lowest  percentage  of  brun- 
nettes  is  found  in  Piedmont,  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  and  in  general 
the  number  of  brunettes  is  less  in  northern  and  central  Italy. 

The  relative  distribution  of  other  ethnical  data  should  be  noted, 
such  as  the  stature  and  the  cephalic  index,  in  the  corresponding 
charts. 

By  combining  these  results,  we  find  that  in  the  north  of 
Italy  the  prevalent  type  is  blond,  brachycephalic,  and  of  tall  stat- 
ure; while  in  the  south  it  is  a  dark,  dolichocephalic  type,  of  low 
stature.  This  is  what  I  succeeded  in  showing  in  my  work  upon  the 
women  of  Latium,  in  which  I  sought  to  complete  the  details  of 
these  two  ethnic  types.  In  Latium  there  is  a  prevalence  of  the 
dark,  dolichocephalic  type  of  low  stature,  a  type  that  is  still  almost 
pure  at  Castelli  Romani;  this  type  is  fine,  slender  and  delicate 
in  formation,  and  corresponds  to  Sergi's  Mediterranean  stock,  to 
which  are  due  the  great  Egyptian  and  Gra3co-Roman  civilisations. 
The  other  race  is  blond,  tall  and  brachycephalic,  and  has  only  a 
scanty  representation  in  southern  Latium,  but  is  prevalent  in  an 
almost  pure  form  in  the  neighborhood  of  Orte.  This  type  is  much 
coarser  and  more  massive  in  its  formation,  with  a  euriplastic 
skeleton,  and  corresponds  to  Sergi's  Eurasian  race  that  immi- 
grated from  the  continent. 

*** 

In  general,  we  may  say  that  it  is  foreordained  in  our  biological 
destiny  not  only  what  form,  but  also  what  colouring  we  ought  to 
attain  in  the  course  of  our  individual  evolution,  when  we  finally 
arrive  at  mature  development. 

The  Pigments  during  Growth. — In  the  course  of  individual 
evolution,  it  is  not  only  the  form  that  becomes  modified,  but  the 
pigments  as  well.  We  know,  for  example,  that  children  are  more 
blond  than  adults.  Transformations  in  regard  to  the  pigments 
occur,  however,  more  especially  at  the  period  of  puberty. 

Pigmentation  of  the  Hair. — The  colour  of  the  hair  becomes 
darker  in  the  course  of  growth,  changing  from  light  chestnut  to 
dark,  from  blond  to  light  chestnut,  from  dark  to  black,  from  light 


324  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

auburn  to  fiery  red.  Sometimes  this  darkening  of  the  hair  is 
accompanied  by  a  change  in  tone  (from  blond  to  chestnut);  at 
other  times  it  consists  in  an  intensification  of  the  original  colour 
through  an  increase  of  pigment,  which  fixes  and  defines  a  colour 
that  was  previously  indefinite. 

In  children  who  were  ill  or  ailing  during  their  early  years,  in 
other  words,  weakly  children  (through  denutrition,  exhausting 
illnesses,  overexertion),  this  phenomenon  is  imperfectly  achieved, 
just  as  their  growth  as  a  whole  is  imperfectly  achieved.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  these  weaklings  retain  a  paler  and  less  decided 
pigmentation,  which  explains  the  fact  that  statistics  show  a  greater 
proportion  of  frail,  rachitic,  tuberculous  and  mentally  deficient 
persons  among  the  blonds  than  among  the  brunettes;  but  it  is 
among  that  class  of  blonds  whose  light  colour  represents  an  arrest 
of  development  (suppressed  brunettes). 

Social  conditions  also  exert  an  influence  upon  the  colour  of  the 
hair;  a  larger  number  of  blonds  and  of  lighter  and  more  indefinite 
blonds  are  to  be  found  in  the  schools  for  the  poor  than  in  those  for 
the  rich;  also  a  larger  number  in  country  schools,  where  the  pov- 
erty is  greater,  than  in  city  schools.  Consequently  we  may  con- 
clude that  there  are  two  classes  of  blonds :  that  which  is  associated 
with  a  racial  type,  and  that  which  is  the  consequence  of  arrested 
development.  The  first  type  has  a  vivid,  uniform  and  decisive 
colour  tone,  accompanied  by  physiological  rebustness;  the  second 
is  indefinite  in  colour  tone  and  lacks  uniformity —for  example, 
the  more  exposed  parts  of  the  body  are  paler,  and  the  hair  varies 
in  tone,  some  locks  showing  greater  intensity  of  colour  than  others. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  in  frail  young  girls  from  the  country, 
where  the  sun  discolours  the  surface  layer  of  hair.  In  this  con- 
nection it  should  be  remembered  that  in  those  geographical  regions 
where  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  most  nearly  perpendicular,  the  pig- 
ments are,  on  the  contrary,  darker  and  that  the  skin  becomes 
bronzed  under  the  ardent  kiss  of  the  sun.  But  while  the  sun  in- 
tensifies the  tints  that  are  strong  with  life,  it  destroys  those  that 
are  weak  and  moribund,  just  as  it  does  in  the  case  of  lifeless  fabrics, 
which  become  bleached  out  by  the  action  of  the  solar  light. 

Accordingly  the  pigments  give  us  an  important  test  for  judg- 
ing the  robustness  of  the  body;  the  blonds  who  are  the  product  of 
arrested  development  of  brown  tones  that  have  not  been  attained 
because  of  weakness,  are  frail  in  health  and  physical  resistance, 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  325 

which  is  the  basis  of  the  popular  belief  that  vigorous  wet-nurses 
must  be  brunettes. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  our  own  population  of  Latium  the 
brunette  type  prevails  over  the  blond  by  a  percentage  of  86  per 
cent.;  and  it  may  be  that  a  blond  Roman  wet-nurse  is  a  weakly 
creature,  just  as  a  Roman  red  wine  is  in  all  probability  a  white 

wine  that  has  been  coloured. 

i 

*** 

Pigmentation  of  the  Iris. — In  regard  to  the  coloration  of  the 
eyes,  a  change  often  takes  place  at  puberty  which  is  the  opposite 
to  that  already  noted  in  regard  to  the  hair:  the  eyes  become  more 
uniformly  light;  this  happens  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

In  the  coloration  of  the  eyes  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  two 
factors,  the  uvea  and  the  pigment. 

The  iris  has  a  fundamental  and  uniform  light  colour  (due  to 
the  uvea)  which  oscillates,  according  to  the  individual,  between 
blue  and  greenish. 

In  this  layer  the  pigment  is  deposited;  it  may  be  more  or  less 
intense  in  tone,  shading  from  yellow  to  a  dark  maroon. 

When  the  pigment  is  wanting  or  is  very  scant,  the  fundamental 
blue  or  greenish  colour  of  the  uvea  is  apparent. 

In  little  children  the  pigment  is  distributed  over  the  uvea  in 
a  manner  by  no  means  uniform,  in  little  masses  or  spots  that  are 
usually  of  a  mixed  colour,  so  that  the  colour  of  the  iris  in  infancy 
may  be  uncertain.  At  puberty  a  uniform  distribution  of  the  pig- 
ment already  accumulated  takes  place;  but  rarely  an  intensifi- 
cation. Hence  the  colour  becomes  more  decided,  but  not  deeper, 
as  Godin  has  recently  succeeded  in  proving. 

Pigmentation  of  the  Skin. — In  the  colouring  of  the  skin  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  that  which  is  due  to  the  blood 
and  that  which  is  due  to  the  pigment. 

The  blood,  whose  colour  shows  transparently  through  the  layers 
of  the  epidermis,  produces  the  various  pinkish  tones. 

The  pigment,  deposited  in  all  races  of  mankind  under  the 
Malpighian  layer,  produces  the  various  brownish  tones.  The 
quantity  of  cutaneous  pigment  is  a  constant  racial  factor — a  hered- 
itary factor.  Nevertheless,  in  certain  individuals,  it  may  be 
influenced  by  external  agents  (sunshine,  heat)  which  tend  to  cause 
it  to  vary;  such  alterations  produce  individual  varieties,  and  also 


326  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

variations  in  coloration  of  the  skin  between  the  covered  parts  of 
the  body  and  those  exposed  to  the  sun  or  to  atmospheric  action  in 
general;  these  variations,  one  and  all,  are  not  hereditary. 

At  puberty  the  pigment  is  increased  in  certain  portions  of  the 
body  in  connection  with  the  generative  functions  which  become 
established  at  that  time.  Besides  this,  the  general  pigmentation 
is  intensified;  children  are  whiter  than  adults. 

The  Skin  and  the  Hair  during  the  Evolution  of  the  Organism. — 
In  the  case  of  the  hair  also,  the  pigment  does  not  remain  a  con- 
stant quantity  throughout  the  different  periods  of  life.  Grey  hair 
is  a  normal  sign  of  the  decadence  of  an  organism  which  has  entered 
upon  its  involution.  As  is  well  known,  the  hair  of  the  head,  the 
beard,  and  in  general  all  the  piliferous  appendages  turn  white, 
beginning  in  the  regions  where  the  hair  is  most  abundant,  i.e., 
on  the  head.  In  some  men,  however,  the  hairs  of  the  beard  are 
the  first  to  turn  grey;  this  is  not  perfectly  normal,  it  is  an  inferior 
manner  of  growing  old.  A  German  proverb  says,  that  he  who 
works  much  with  the  head  (the  thinking  class)  turns  grey  first  in 
his  hair,  and  that  he  who  works  much  with  his  mouth  (the  hearty 
eater)  turns  grey  first  in  his  beard. 

The  skin  also  gives  manifest  signs  of  decadence  in  the  form  of 
wrinkles.  These  serve  up  to  a  certain  point  as  documentary  evi- 
dence of  the  life  which  the  individual  has  led  and  the  high  or  low 
type  to  which  he  belongs.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  grey  hair,  it  is 
the  class  of  thinkers  who  have  the  most  wrinkles  on  their  forehead; 
those  who  were  given  over  to  baser  passions,  such  as  called  for 
labial  rather  than  frontal  expression,  have  on  the  contrary,  more 
wrinkles  around  the  mouth.  We  know  how  the  peasant  class  has 
a  veritable  halo  of  wrinkles  around  the  mouth. 

Thinkers,  on  the  contrary,  have  a  single  vertical  furrow  in  the 
middle  of  the  forehead :  the  line  of  thought.  The  transverse  lines 
on  the  forehead  are  parallel  and  unconnected. 

Faces  with  precocious  wrinkles  may  be  met  with,  even  in  chil- 
dren (denutrition,  mental  anxiety,  dystrophic  conditions) ;  and  con- 
versely, there  are  faces  which  have  been  preserved  unwrinkled  up 
to  an  advanced  age  (especially  in  the  case  of  women  of  the  aristoc- 
racy, in  whom  it  may  happen  that  neither  suffering  nor  mental 
effort  has  left  its  traces  on  their  lives). 

Pigmentation  of  the  Hair. — This  anthropological  datum  merits 
special  consideration,  since  it  plays  so  large  a  part  in  the  aesthetics 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  327 

of  the  human  body;  and  also  preserves  certain  constant  charac- 
teristics that  serve  to  differentiate  the  races.  In  a  study  of  the 
hair  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  quantity,  the  disposition  and 
the  form.  Abundant,  strong,  sleek  hah*  is  in  physiological  rela- 
tion to  robustness  of  body.  Thin  hair,  on  the  contrary,  or  hair 
that  is  easily  extirpated  at  the  slightest  pull,  or  dry  hair,  indicate 
insufficient  nutrition,  which  may  also  be  connected  with  dystro- 
phic  or  pathological  conditions  (hereditary  syphilis,  cretinism). 

The  normal  disposition  of  the  hah*  is  characteristic,  but  it 
may  assume  a  number  of  individual  variations,  as  has  recently 
been  shown  by  Dr.  Sergio  Sergi,  son  of  our  mutual  instructor 
Giuseppe  Sergi  (Sergio  Sergi,  Sulla  disposizione  dei  capelli  intorno 
alia  fronte — "The  disposition  of  the  hair  upon  the  forehead  "- 
Acts  of  the  Societa  di  Antropologia,  Vol.  13,  No.  1). 

The  hair,  after  forming  a  single  whorl  or  vortex,  corresponding 
to  the  obelion,  flows  over  the  forehead  in  either  two  or  three  divi- 
sions, the  lines  of  the  parting  (either  lateral  lines  or  a  single  central 
line)  corresponding  to  the  natural  divisions  of  the  flowing  hair. 
Across  the  forehead  the  hair  ceases  at  the  line  of  the  roots,  which 
crowns  the  face  cornice-like;  it  is  a  sinuous  line  and  rises  at  the 
sides  in  two  points,  corresponding  to  the  natural  partings  of  the 
hair.  The  hair  stops  normally  at  the  boundary-line  of  the  fore- 
head, which  together  with  the  face  forms  the  visage,  leaving  bare 
that  part  which  in  man  corresponds  to  that  portion  of  the  frontal 
bone  that  rises  erect  above  the  orbital  arches,  i.e.,  the  human 
portion  of  the  forehead. 

The  form  of  the  hair  is  an  ethnical  characteristic.  Among 
our  European  populations  the  extreme  forms  are  wanting,  namely, 
smooth  hair  (stiff,  coarse,  sparse  hair  peculiar  to  the  red  and  yellow 
races,  such  as  the  American  Indian,  Esquinaux,  Samoyed  and 
Chinese),  and  kinky  hair  (wooly  hair,  curling  in  fine,  close  spirals, 
such  as  is  found  in  all  its  variations  among  the  Australians  and 
the  African  negroes).  Consequently,  we  cannot  use  the  words 
smooth  or  kinky  for  the  purpose  of  qualifying  the  forms  of  hair 
found  in  our  populations. 

We  may,  however,  meet  with  straight  hair  (not  smooth),  or 
curly  hair  (not  kinky).  In  addition  to  these  forms,  which  among 
us  represent  the  extremes,  there  are  also  two  other  forms — namely, 
wavy  hair  (in  ample  curves)  and  spiral  hair  (forming  much  nar- 
rower curves,  the  so-called  ringlets).  Corresponding  to  these  vari- 


328 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


ous  qualities  of  hair,  there  are  essential  differences  in  the  physical 
structure  of  the  stem  or  shaft  of  the  hair  itself.  If  we  make  trans- 
verse sections  of  hair  and  examine  them  under  the  microscope, 
we  find  that  the  resulting  geometrical  figures  are  not  all  equal :  the 
forms  of  the  sections  oscillate  between  rounded  and  ellipsoidal 
forms.  Furthermore,  there  are  races  in  which  we  may  find  hair 
having  a  circular  section  (smooth  hair)  and  there  are  others  in 

which  we  may  find,  on  the 
contrary,  an  extremely 
elongated  elliptical  section 
(kinky  hair);  in  the  first 
case  the  hair  is  a  long, 
bristly  cylinder;  in  the 
second,  it  is  a  ribbon  with 
a  tendency'  to  roll  up. 

In  general,  the  straighter 
the  hair  is,  the  nearer  its 
cross-section  approaches  a 
perfect  circle;  and  the  more 
curly  it  is,  the  nearer  its 
cross-section  approaches  an 
elongated  ellipse.  The  ac- 
companying examples  are 
drawn  from  the  results  of 
my  own  study  of  the  women 
of  Latium;  they  represent 
five  microscopic  prepara- 
tions. The  figure  in  the 
middle  (No.  3)  represents 
straight  hair;  the  two  fig- 
ures, No.  1  and  5,  are  from  curly  hair;  No.  2  is  wavy  hair,  and 
No.  4,  close-curled  hair,  or  ringlets.  Thus  we  see  how  widely  the 
sections  of  hair  differ  according  to  the  relative  degree  of  curliness; 
and  conversely,  how  identical  the  two  sections,  Nos.  1  and  5  are, 
both  of  them  taken  from  equally  curly  hair,  although  from  differ- 
ent heads.  Straight  hair  has  an  almost  circular  section,  although, 
slightly  elliptical;  this  proves  that  really  straight  hah-  does  not 
exist;  in  fact,  even  when  it  attains  the  maximum  degree  of 
smoothness,  it  retains  a  tendency  to  curl,  which  is  shown,  if  in 
no  other  way,  by  the  readiness  with  which  it  acquires  a  waviness, 


FIG.  130. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  329 

if  habitually  kept  braided.  There  is  no  other  section  so  perfectly 
circular  as  that  of  the  red  races,  thus  demonstrating  the  bristle- 
like  rigidity  of  the  smooth  type  of  hair.  Wavy  hair  is  that  which, 
in  the  form  of  its  section,  approaches  most  nearly  to  straight  hair; 
it  is  a  slightly  elongated  ellipse  (No.  2). 

Anomalies  relating  to  the  Pigment,  the  Skin  and  the  Piliferous 
Appendages:  Pigment  and  Skin. — There  are  certain  congenital 
anomalies  of  the  skin,  occasionally  to  be  met  with,  among*  which 
I  make  note  of  the  following  principal  ones : 

a.  Anomalies  due  to  Hypertrophy  of  the  Pigment  and  the  Cor- 
ium:      Ichthyosis. — The    surface    of    the    skin    presents    large, 
raised,    irregular    patches  of    various  dark   colours  tending  to 
maroon. 

b.  Anomalies  due  to  Hypertrophy  of  the  Pigment: 

1.  Ncevi  Materni:  dark  isolated  spots  (moles,  birth-marks). 

2.  Freckles:  small,  light  brown  spots,  no  larger  than  the 
head  of  a  pin,  scattered  over  the  body,  principally  on  the  chest  and 
face. 

3.  Melanosis:  the   entire   skin   has   a   dark   appearance, 
similar  to  that  of  the  lower  races  of  mankind,  but  especially  on  the 
face  and  hands. 

c.  Anomalies  due  to  Atrophy  of  the  Pigment.     Albinism. — The 
skin  presents  an  appearance  of  milky  whiteness;  even  the  hair  is 
white,  and  the  iris  of  the  eye  is  red. 

Wrinkles. — The  wrinkles  of  the  face  are  deserving  of  attention, 
as  being  a  detail  of  noteworthy  importance.  In  regard  to  wrinkles, 
two  points  should  be  noted;  a.  precocity;  b.  anomalies. 

a.  Precocity  of  Wrinkles. — This  is  an  indication  of  rapid 
involution,  and  is  frequently  met  with  in  degenerates.     Idiotic 
children  often  show  a  flabby,  shrivelled  skin,  overstrewn  with  a 
multitude  of  wrinkles  that  give  them  the  aspect  of  little  old  men. 

b.  Anomalies:  the  following  are  to  be  specially  noted: 

1.  Transverse  wrinkles  on  the  nose,  frequent  in  flat-nosed 
idiots. 

2.  Wrinkles  on  the  forehead;  in  normal  persons  these  are 
interrupted  and  broken,  they  are  not  quite  parallel,  nor  perfectly 
horizontal,  nor  very  deep. 

In  degenerates  it  is  frequently  noticed  that  the  wrinkles  on  the 
forehead  form  one  continuous  horizontal  line,  extending  completely 
across  it;  sometimes  it  is  so  deep  that  it  seems  to  divide  the  fore- 


330 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


head  transversely  into  two  parts.     The  various  wrinkles,  straight 
and  unbroken,  are  quite  parallel. 

3.  The  zygomatic  (cheek-bone)  wrinkles  and  the  wrinkles 
around  the  mouth  are  extremely  deep  in  mentally  defective  adult 
and  aged  persons,  and  also  in  criminals,  whose  facial  expression  is 
especially  active  in  the  region  of  the  nose  and  mouth,  which  con- 
stitute the  least  contemplative  portion  of  the  face. 

Anomalies  of  the  Hair. — 1 .  Quantity. — The  quantity  of  hair  may 
be  excessive — polytrichia,  a  mark  of  degeneration 
easily  to  be  met  with  among  delinquents  and 
prostitutes;  or  there  may  be  a  scarcity  of  hair — 
atrichia,  among  neuropaths,  feeble-minded  and 
cretins.  Sometimes,  precocious  baldness  occurs, 
as  a  result  of  defective  nutrition  of  the  skin. 

2.  Disposition. — We  should  note:  a.  the  line 
of  roots  of  the  hair;  b.  the  vortices. 

a.  Line  of  Roots. — This  may  be  situated  too 
far  down  upon  the  forehead,  in  which  case  it 
gives  a  false  impression  of  a  low  forehead,  or 
too  far  back,  in  which  case  it  gives  a  false  impres- 
sion of  a  high  forehead. 

Note  in  addition  the  form  of  the  line  of  roots; 
it  ought  to  be,  as  we  have  already  said,  sinuous; 
sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  this  line  is  straight, 
and  forms  a  uniform  curve,  without  sinuosity, 
across  the  forehead  (imbeciles);  at  other  times 
it  descends  in  a  peak  at  the  middle  point  of  the 
forehead. 

b.  Vortices. — Normally,  there  ought  to  be 

Qne  central  whorl  Qr  VQrtex  oyer  the  sinciput. 

Abnormally  it  may  happen: 

That  the  vortex  is  misplaced — above,  below  or  laterally; 
That  the  vortex  is  double; 

That  there  are  also  vortices  along  the  frontal  line  of  roots, 
or  near  this  line. 

3.  Form. — It  sometimes  happens  that  we  find  in  degenerates 
forms  of  hair  that  are  normal  in  inferior  races,  i.e.,  smooth  hair, 
or  kinky,  wooly  hair. 

Grey  Hair. — Sometimes  in  the  case  of  degenerates  or  those 
suffering  from  dystrophy,  a  precocious  grey  ness  occurs  (grey- 


FIG.  131.— Showing 
various  types  of  the 
line  of  rootsof  the  hair. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  331 

haired  young  men,  children  with  white  hair) ;  or  a  partial  congen- 
ital greyness  (clumps  of  white  hair).  No  form  of  grey  hair,  how- 
ever, should  be  confused  with  albinism. 

Anomalies  relating  to  the  Eyebrows  and  the  Beard.  The  Eye- 
brows.— Various  anomalies  may  occur,  in  respect  to  the  quantity 
of  hair,  and  the  form  of  the  eyebrows. 

The  hairs  may  be  too  abundant  or  too  scanty. 

The  form  may  be  oblique,  in  degenerate  mongoloid  types*. 

A  notable  anomaly  consists  in  a  union  of  the  eyebrows,  which 
meet  and  form  an  unbroken  line  across  the  region  of  the  glabella. 
The  "united  eyebrows"  constitute  a  grave  sign  of  degeneration, 
and  are  popularly  regarded  in  Italy  as  a  mark  of  the  "jettatura" 
or  "evil  eye." 

Beard. — It  may  be  very  thick  or  very  thin.  Too  thick  a  beard 
is  important,  especially  if  the  hairs  are  also  abundant  on  the  cheeks 
and  even  on  the  forehead,  a  characteristic  that  is  frequently 
accompanied  by  an  abundant  growth  of  hair  over  the  entire  body 
(general  hypertrichosis). 

A  thin  beard  and  moustache  may  constitute  a  normal  charac- 
teristic in  certain  races,  such  as  the  Kaffirs  and  other  African  negro 
tribes;  as  also  in  the  Chinese.  In  our  own  race,  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  an  abnormal  characteristic,  which  has  been  interpreted  as  a 
sexual  inversion  (feminism)  and  is  met  with  frequently  among 
thieves. 
MORPHOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  CERTAIN  ORGANS  (STIGMATA) 

In  our  morphological  analysis  of  certain  organs,  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  enumerate  a  number  of  separate  malformations,  to 
the  study  of  which  criminal  anthropology  has  devoted  much  atten- 
tion. Since  many  of  these  are  met  with  in  children,  we  will  make 
a  rapid  enumeration  of  them,  but  must  keep  in  mind  that  the  ability 
to  distinguish  the  abnormal  form  from  the  normal  requires  practice 
in  the  actual  observation  of  subjects,  while  mere  verbal  descrip- 
tions may  lead  to  false  and  confusing  impressions. 


332 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


SYNOPTIC  CHART 


Eyes. 


Ears. 


Nose. 


position 

rima  palpebrarum 
or  eye-slit 

size  of  eye-ball .... 


sclerotic  coat 
foramina  (pupils). 

asymmetries 


malformations . 


types. 


anomalies . 


J  high  type 
I  low  type 

imacrophthalmia 
microphthalmia 
exophthalmia 

imiosis 
mydriasis 
anisocoria 
f  position 
I  form 

Wildermuth's  ear 
embryonal  ear 
Morel's  ear 
handle-shaped  ear 
crumpled  ear 
canine  ear,  etc. 

(leptorrhine 
platyrrhine 
mesorrhine 
f  flat 
j  crooked 
I  trilobate 
f  simian  mouth 
•j  negroid  mouth 
1  hair  lip,  etc. 

number 

dimensions 

form 

diastemata 
.  irregular  position 
J  macroglossia 
\  microglossia 

ogival  (pointed  arch) 

cleft 


Generalities. — Passing  on  to  a  more  minute  study  of  form,  we  shall  have  to 
invade  the  field  of  human  aesthetics.  The  proportions  of  the  body  are  all  deter- 
mined, in  respect  to  their  harmony;  and  especially  admirable  is  the  harmony 
existing  between  the  principal  parts  of  the  human  physiognomy.  Artists  know 
that  in  a  regular  face  the  length  of  the  eye  is  equal  to  the  interocular  distance,  or 
to  the  width  of  the  nose,  while  the  latter  stands  to  the  width  of  the  mouth  in  a 
ratio  of  2  to  3.  The  length  of  the  external  ear  remains,  at  all  ages,  exactly  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  width  of  the  two  eyes. 

The  eyes  and  the  external  ears  grow  but  little,  consequently  they  are  relatively 


'  lips. 


Buccal 
apparatus 


teeth . 


tongue . 
palate. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  333 

quite  large  in  children.  The  nose  and  mouth,  on  the  contrary,  grow  much  more, 
and  hence  appear  quite  small  in  infancy.  The  growth  of  the  face,  like  that  of 
the  whole  body,  is  an  evolution.  , 

Among  all  the  harmonies  of  the  human  body,  that  which  can  undergo  the 
greatest  numbers  of  alterations  in  the  course  of  its  evolution  is  the  reciprocal  har- 
mony between  the  parts  of  the  face.  There  are  more  children  than  grown  persons 
with  beautiful  faces,  because  the  efforts  of  adaptation  to  environment,  or  con- 
genital biological  causes,  or  pathological  causes  may  easily  alter  the  evolution 
of  the  face. 

We  will  take  a  rapid  glance  at  the  principal  morphological  anomalies  likely  to 
be  encountered  in  connection  with  the  face. 

All  the  malformations  that  we  are  about  to  enumerate  are  still  included  under 
the  generic  name  of  stigmata,  and  they  may  be  degenerative  stigmata  (congenital 
anomalies),  pathological  stigmata  (acquired  through  disease),  or  stigmata  of  caste 
(caused  by  adaptation  to  environment). 

Anomalies  relating  to  the  Eye. — The  eyes  may  be  too  far  apart  (usually  in 
broad,  square  faces  of  the  Mongolian  type),  or  too  near  together  (for  the  most 
part  in  long  narrow  faces,  with  a  hooked  nose). 

Rima  Palpebrarum  (Eye-slit] . — A  straight,  narrow  slit  (low  type) ;  an  oblique 
slit  (Mongolian  eye). 

Size  of  Eye-ball. — The  eye-ball  may  be  too  large  (macrophthalmia)  and  hence 
often  protrudes  from  the  socket  (exophthalmia) ;  or  it  may  be  too  small  and  deep- 
sunken  (microphthalmia) ,  or  asymmetrical  in  size  (one  eye-ball  larger  than  the 
other). 

Direction. — Strabism  (inward,  outward,  monolateral,  bilateral). 

Sclerotic  Coat. — It  may  be  injected  with  blood  (delinquents),  or  partly  covered 
over  by  an  abnormal  development  of  the  semilunar  plica  or  fold  of  the  palpebral 
conjunctiva. 

Pupillary  Foramina. — The  two  foramina  of  the  pupils  ought  to  be  equal  in 
size,  circular  and  with  a  clearly  marked  contour.  But  under  various  conditions 
of  age  and  ill  health  the  size  as  well  as  the  equality  of  the  pupils  may  vary. 

As  regards  the  size  of  the  pupils : 

When  the  pupillary  foramina  are  too  small,  this  constitutes  miosis — a  condi- 
tion frequently  found  in  certain  serious  nervous  diseases  (locomotor  ataxia, 
paralytic  dementia),  and  in  chronic  opium  poisoning;  it  is  frequent  in  meningitis. 
In  old  persons  miosis  is  a  normal  condition. 

When,  on  the  contrary,  the  foramina  of  the  pupils  are  too  large,  this 
constitutes  mydriasis  (poisoning  from  atropine,  intestinal  diseases,  etc.). 

In  addition  to  these,  there  is  anisocoria,  when  the  two  foramina  are  unequal 
(neurasthenia,  chronic  alcoholism,  first  stage  of  paralytic  dementia). 

Form  of  the  Pupillary  Foramen. — It  is  not  always  round,  sometimes  it  is  oval 
(cat's-eye).  Frequently  the  form  of  the  pupil  is  permanently  altered  as  the 
result  of  a  surgical  operation. 

Thus,  the  contour  of  the  pupil  may  be  broken  instead  of  clear  cut;  in  verifying 
this  phenomenon  it  is  important  to  inquire  whether  the  subject  has  suffered  from 
any  progressive  disease  of  the  iris,  such  as  might  produce  the  same  condition. 

Anomalies  of  the  Ear. — While  in  the  case  of  animals  the  external  ear  is  greatly 
22 


334  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

developed,  movable  and  detached  from  the  cranium,  in  man  it  is  reduced  in  size, 
immovable  and  attached  to  the  cranium.  Two  measurements  are  taken  of  the 
ear,  the  length  and  the  width,  and  by  means  of  the  usual  formula  we  obtain  the 
index  of  the  ear,  which  for  the  European  race  is  about  54  per  cent.  This  index  has 
a  certain  importance  because  we  find  that  the  proportion  of  width  to  length 
steadily  increases  as  we  descend  through  the  inferior  human  races,  down  to  the 
ape,  and  the  same  increase  continues  if  we  descend  through  the  different  grades 
of  the  simian  order. 

This  is  to  a  large  extent  a  result  of  the  fact  that,  in  the  descent  from  man  to 
ape,  the  lobule  of  the  ear,  which  is  essentially  a  human  form,  steadily  diminishes, 
until  it  finally  disappears. 

From  this  it  may  be  concluded  that  there  exist  minute  zoological  differences 
other  than  generic  between  man  and  animals.  As  to  malformations  of  the  human 
ear,  which  may  consist  of  shortness  or  absence  of  the  lobule  (formerly  interpreted 
as  a  simian  inheritance)  they  are  to-day  attributed  to  physiological  causes.  An 
abundant  circulation  produces  an  ample  smd  fleshy  lobe;  in  oligohsemic  constitu- 
tions (deficiency  of  blood)  the  lobe  is  delicate,  pale  and  even  atrophied.  Brachy- 
sceles  often  have  a  big  lobe,  and  macrosceles,  predisposed  to  phthisis,  often  have 
no  lobe. 

In  regard  to  the  external  ear  we  should  observe: 

1.  Symmetry. — The  ears  should  be  symmetrical: 

a.  In  respect  to  their  position. 

b.  In  respect  to  the  more  or  less  pronounced  divergence  of  the  ears  from 
the  cranium. 

c.  In  respect  to  their  form. 

a.  Position. — We  must  look  for  this  form  of  asymmetry  by  observing  the 
cranium  according  to  the  occipital  norm.    The  asymmetry  may  be  caused  by  one 
of  the  ears  being  placed  too  high  up  or  too  far  back  in  respect  to  the  other,  or  both 
asymmetries  may  occur  together. 

b.  The  asymmetry  due  to  divergence  is  observed  from  two  norms,  the 
facial  and  the  occipital. 

c.  Asymmetry  of  form  is  perceived  by  observing  successively  the  two  exter- 
nal ears  according  to  the  lateral  norms;  their  morphological  aspect  should  corre- 
spond on  the  two  sides. 

2.  Anatomy  and  Malformations  of  the  External  Ear. — A  preliminary  anatom- 
ical note  is  necessary.  The  external  ear  consists  of  various  parts,  which  were 
first  studied  and  named  by  Fabricius  of  Acquapendente: 

1.  The  Helix.— This  is  the  outermost  fold  of  the  ear;  it  takes  its  origin 
above  the  auricular  foramen  in  a  root  starting  from  the  inside  of  the  concha  and 
rises  upward,  to  descend  again  describing  a  regular  helix;  and  it  terminates  in  the 
lobule.    At  the  point  where  the  helix  bends  downward  to  form  the  descending 
branch,  a  small  cartilaginous  formation  can  be  discerned  by  the  sense  of  touch; 
this  is  the  Darwinian  tubercle. 

2.  The  Antihelix. — This  originates  in  two  roots  under  the  ascending  branch 
of  the  helix  and  terminates  in  the  antitragus;  it  is  a  cartilaginous  formation. 

3.  The  Auricular  Fossa. — This  divides  the  helix  from  the  antihelix. 

4.  The  Tragus. — This  is  a  little  triangular  cartilaginous  formation  situated 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  335 

in  front  of  the  auricular  foramen.     Between  the  tragus  and  the  antitragus  is  the 
intertragical  fossa. 

5.  The  Concha. — This  is  the  concavity,  the  internal  fossa  of  the  auricle, 
which  leads  to  the  channel  of  the  internal  ear. 

Instances  may  be  found  of  malformation  of  each  and  all  of  these  various  parts 
of  the  ear,  which  may  be  excessively  developed,  or  almost  wanting,  or  altered  in 
form. 

The  Helix. — The  overfolding  of  the  cartilage  may  be  wanting,  leaving  the 
margin  of  the  auricle  straight;  this  form  is  met  with  in  the  Mongolian  race,  but 
among  us  it  is  a  malformation  (Morel's  ear).  It  is  a  more  serious  malformation 
if  it  occurs  combined  with  excessive  development  of  the  Darwinian  tubercle;  iu 
this  case  the  auricle  assumes  a  really  animal-like  aspect  ("canine  ear"). 

The  helix  may  originate  within  the  concha  from  a  root  so  prolonged  that  it 
divides  the  concha  itself  into  two  parts,  an  upper  and  a  lower. 

The  helix  may  be  greatly  developed  and  sharply  divergent  from  the  cranium — 
handle-shaped  ear;  or  it  may  be  bent  at  an  angle  at  the  upper  outer  margin — 
embryonal  ear. 

The  lobule  is,  as  we  have  already  said,  an  essentially  human  formation,  and  as 
though  man  were  conscious  of  this  fact  and  proud  of  it,  it  is  customary  in  all 
races  to  adorn  it  with  ear-rings,  to  such  an  extent  that  in  India  and  in  Cochin- 
China  the  lobe  is  burdened  with  ornaments  of  great  weight,  in  consequence  of 
which  it  has  continued  to  develop  until  it  almost  touches  the  shoulder. 

The  lobule  may  be  attached  to  the  cheek  (sessile  lobule). 

The  antihelix  may  be  so  developed  as  to  rise  in  front  of  the  helix — Wilder- 
muth's  ear. 

Another  important  malformation  connected  with  the  ear,  which  is  com- 
monly found  in  idiots,  is  a  prolongation  and  restriction  of  the  intertragical  fossa 
into  a  fissure  (fissura  intertragica).  The  tragus  ought  normally  to  exceed  the 
antitragus  in  dimensions. 

Anomalies  of  the  Nose. — The  nose  presents  very  numerous  individual  varieties, 
even  among  normal  individuals.  In  the  European  race  we  distinguish  the 
straight  nose  (Italian),  the  aquiline,  the  retrousse1  (French),  the  sinuous,  etc. 
But  in  all  these  forms  one  characteristic  remains  more  or  less  constant:  the 
aperture  of  the  nostrils  is  long  and  narrow,  or  rather  its  length  exceeds  its  width 
(the  nostrils  are  thin  and  mobile,  the  skeleton  of  the  nose  projects  above  the  plane 
of  the  face).  In  the  other  races  of  mankind,  on  the  contrary,  two  other  types 
of  nose  are  distinguished  in  respect  to  this  characteristic:  1.  The  aperture  of  the 
nostrils  is  round  (the  nostrils  themselves  are  fleshy,  the  base  of  the  nose  somewhat 
flattened) — mesorrhine  nose,  characteristic  of  the  Mongolian  race,  and  found 
repeatedly  in  mongoloid  idiots;  2.  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils  is  broadened,  i.e.,  the 
width  exceeds  the  length  (the  nose  is  flattened  and  almost  level  at  the  base,  and 
furrowed  for  the  most  part  with  transverse  wrinkles,  the  nostrils  are  exceedingly 
fleshy  and  immobile — platyrrhine  nose,  peculiar  to  the  African  and  Australian 
races.  Corresponding  to  the  external  form  of  the  nose  there  is  also  a  difference 
in  the  skeleton  in  relation  to  the  piriform  aperture  and  the  naso-labial  duct ;  the 
external  form  of  the  nose  is  really  dependent  upon  the  skeleton  (consequently, 
the  above-mentioned  nomenclature  applies  also  to  the  piriform  aperture  of  the 


336  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

cranium  (see  Skeleton  of  the  face).  The  flat  nose  is  found  as  a  malformation  in 
idiots,  and  is  usually  accompanied  by  prognathism. 

Other  important  malformations  relating  to  the  nose  are  the  development  of  a 
tubercle  at  the  tip — trilobate  nose,  frequent  in  low  types  of  idiots;  and  the  tip  of  the 
nose  bent  sideways  (usually  toward  the  left) ;  this  form  occurs  in  leptorrhine  noses 
and  is  considered  to  be  a  stigma  of  criminality  (thieves). 

Anomalies  relating  to  the  Buccal  Apparatus. — Malformations  occur  in  relation 
to  the  lips,  the  teeth,  the  tongue  and  the  palate. 

The  Lips. — The  European  type  of  lips  is  well  known  both  as  regards  their 
proportions  and  their  lines  of  contour  which  determine  the  distinctive  form. 

Sometimes  this  graceful  modeling  is  wanting;  the  contour  of  the  lips  is  formed 
of  almost  horizontal  lines,  the  oral  aperture  is  very  wide,  and  has  the  appearance, 
especially  when  laughing,  of  being  edged  by  a  perfectly  uniform,  narrow  line,  thus 
resembling  the  mouth  of  a  monkey. 

At  other  times  we  meet  with  thick,  fleshy  lips,  slightly  pendulous,  like  those  of 
the  black  races,  especially  the  Hottentots  and  Australians;  it  is  a  malformation 
frequent  among  idiots,  and  occurs  together  with  prognathism  and  the  flattened 
nose. 

Another  notable  form  is  that  in  which  the  lips  are  not  only  thick  and  fleshy, 
but  the  internal  tissues  are  so  abnormally  developed  that  they  protrude  from  the 
oral  orifice  in  a  slight  prolapsus;  this  form  of  lips  is  quite  characteristic  of  myx- 
edematous  idiots.  Finally,  we  may  meet  with  the  so-called  hare-lip,  or  lip  di- 
vided in  the  middle,  signifying  an  arrest  of  embryonal  development  and  frequently 
accompanied  by  a  cleft  palate  and  a  double  uvula  (see  Development  of  the  face). 

The  Teeth. — There  is  nothing  new  to  tell  of  the  characteristic  forms  of  the 
teeth — the  incisors,  the  canines,  the  premolars,  and  the  molars — nor  of  their 
regular  placement  in  a  single  row  corresponding  to  the  curve  of  the  maxilla  and 
the  mandible.  I  shall  therefore  merely  give  the  two  dental  formulae  correspond- 
ing to  the  two  dentitions  of  man. 

First  dentition,  or  "milk  teeth": 

2—2  1—1  2—2 

=  20  teeth 

incisors  canines  premolars 

Second  or  final  dentition: 

2—2  1—1  2—2  3—3 


2—2  1—1  2—2  3—3 

incisors  canines  premolar  molars 


=  32  teeth 


In  relation  to  the  teeth  there  are  a  great  number  of  anomalies  which  may 
occur,  in  number,  in  position,  in  size  and  form,  and  these  anomalies  are  so  fre- 
quent that  we  may  say  the  smile  stigmatizes  the  degenerate.  Frequently  it  is 
the  most  evident  stigma  of  the  whole  face;  so  much  so  that  this  same  smile  which 
adds  so  much  charm  to  the  normal  human  countenance  becomes  ugly  and  re- 
pulsive in  degenerates. 

Anomalies  in  Number  of  Teeth. — Sometimes  there  are  more  than  32  teeth, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  certain  supernumerary  teeth;  these  will  be  found  to  occur 


FIG.  133. — Embryonal  ear 


JIG.  134. — Decayed  teeth. 


FIG.  136. — Example  of  a  worn-down  tooth.  FIG.  137. — -Handle-shaped  ears. 


337 

most  frequently  in  the  case  of  the  canines,  next  in  that  of  the  incisors,  and  lastly 
in  that  of  the  premolars. 

Sometimes  the  number  of  teeth  is  less  than  32,  in  which  case  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  two  cases  of  very  different  significance:  First,  the  last  molars  ("wis- 
dom teeth")  may  be  want  ing;  secondly,  some  of  the  other  teeth  may  be  wanting 
(incisors,  canines,  or  premolars).  The  last  molar  is  of  no  use  whatever  to  man, 
because  it  does  not  enter  into  the  service  of  mastication,  and  it  is  tending  to  disap- 
pear. We  may  even  predict  that  the  day  is  coming  when  mankind  will  no  longer 
have  wisdom  teeth,  and  the  human  dental  formula  will  be  as  follows : 

2—2  1— 1  2—2  2—2 

2^2  T~L  2^  2  =  2    : 

incisors  canines  premolar  molars 

The  absence  of  useful  teeth,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  grave  sign  of  degeneration, 
and  one  which  leaves  wide  spaces  between  two  adjacent  teeth  (wide  diastemata). 

The  diastema,  or  space  left  between  adjacent  teeth,  is  of  great  importance. 

There  are  various  causes  for  this  stigma.  Besides  the  one  already  mentioned, 
due  to  congenital  absence  of  a  tooth  (broad  diastema),  another  recognized  cause  is 
an  anomalous  placing  of  the  teeth  (narrow  diastema).  The  significance  of  this  is 
not  always  the  same:  for  example,  the  diastema  between  two  upper  incisors 
indicates  a  very  slight  anomaly  of  embryonal  development,  and,  some  people 
think,  gives  a  sympathetic  charm  to  the  smile.  On  the  contrary,  a  diastema  oc- 
curring at  the  side  of  a  canine  tooth  signifies  a  congenital  malformation. 

At  other  times  such  anomalous  spaces  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  teeth 
have  remained  small,  or  happen  to  have  worn  away  laterally  and  present  an  almost 
filiform  or  thread-like  aspect  (diastemata  due  to  microdontia  resulting  from  syph- 
ilis or  various  dystrophic  conditions). 

The  form  of  the  teeth  demands  consideration  next  in  order  of  importance. 
Sometimes  we  encounter  cases  of  teeth  that  are  all  nearly  alike  in  form;  they  have 
lost  that  morphological  differentiation  which  already  existed  in  the  anthropoid 
apes ;  there  is  an  insensible  transition  from  the  incisors,  all  exactly  equal  in  form 
and  dimensions,  to  the  premolars,  which  also  present  the  same  appearance, 
passing  over  a  tooth  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  define  either  as  incisor  or  pre- 
molar (the  canine  tooth).  Usually  in  such  uniform  dentition  there  are  slight 
diastemata. 

This  condition,  however,  is  not  frequently  met  with;  it  is  much  more  usual 
to  find  this  anomaly  occurring  only  in  part;  the  incisor  teeth  are  all  equal,  or 
else  the  canine  resembles  an  incisor  or  a  premolar.  In  combination  with  this 
characteristic,  it  often  happens  that  there  is  a  diastema  next  to  the  canine. 

In  regard  to  size,  the  teeth  may  be  too  large,  macrodontia,  or  too  small,  micro- 
dontia. 

Microdontia  may  be  due  to  a  true  and  actual  arrest  of  development  of  the 
teeth  (white  teeth,  small  and  narrow,  often  all  very  much  alike),  or  to  a  kind 
of  corrosion  of  the  teeth  due  to  congenital  dystrophism  (syphilis).  In  this  case 
the  teeth  are  ground  down  and  worn  away  either  horizontally  or  laterally  (filiform 
teeth) ,  or  again  the  cutting  edge  of  the  tooth  is  not  horizontal  in  the  two  upper 
canines,  but  oblique,  so  that  the  teeth  have  the  appearance  of  being  broken. 


338  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Often  the  teeth  are  furrowed  transversely  with  yellow  streaks  corresponding  to  a 
lack  of  development  of  the  enamel. 

Finally,  the  teeth  may  present  various  anomalies  of  position,  which  may  be 
grouped  under  three  heads: 

a.  Narrow  teeth,  so  placed  as  to  leave  slight  intervals  between  them. 

b.  Isolated  teeth,  planted  outside  the  common  line,  or  else  transversely 
instead  of  horizontally. 

c.  The  dentition  does  not  follow  the  regular  curved  line,  but  shows  various 
sinuosities,  usually  bending  in  at  the  point  corresponding  to  the  canine  tooth. 

The  Tongue. — The  tongue  may  present  morphological  anomalies  of  great 
importance,  since  they  are  the  cause  of  many  defects  of  speech.  Sometimes  the 
tongue  is  too  big — macroglossia,  in  which  case  it  cannot  move  freely  within  the 
buccal  cavity  and  even  finds  difficulty  in  remaining  within  the  mouth,  but  pro- 
jects between  the  lips,  contributing  in  no  small  measure  to  giving  the  face  an 
imbecile  expression.  At  other  times  it  is  too  small — micr aglossia. 

A  deficient  or  excessive  development  of  the  lingual  frenulum  may  also  inter- 
fere with  the  movements  of  the  tongue  (tongue-tie). 

The  Palate. — It  is  a  frequent  experience  to  meet  with  idiots  having  an  ogival 
or  gothic-arched  palate,  with  the  vault  much  curved  and  narrow,  such  as  is  met 
with  in  animals  and  similar  in  section  to  a  gothic  window.  A  special  bony  ridge 
or  crest  may  also  occur  along  the  raphe  or  median  line.  Lastly,  the  palatine 
vault  may  be  divided  in  two  (cleft  palate),  a  form  frequently  accompanied  by  a 
double  uvula;  this  stigma  may  also  be  one  of  the  causes  of  defective  speech,  so 
frequently  met  with  in  deficient  children. 

The  palate  normally  presents  a  diversity  of  forms :  Narrow  and  high,  or  broad 
and  low — forms  associated  with  the  general  type  of  head  (dolichocephalic,  high 
palate;  brachycephalic,  low  palate)  and  especially  with  the  type  of  face,  as  we 
have  already  seen  in  treating  of  the  latter. 

Importance  of  the  Study  of  Morphology. — The  study  of  mor- 
phology is  of  high  importance  in  biology,  and  even  more  so  in 
anthropology.  And  since  the  organism  is  a  harmonic  whole,  in 
which  the  parts  and  their  functions  are  closely  interrelated,  any 
external  anomaly  leads  us  to  assume  that  there  are  corresponding 
anomalies  of  the  internal  organs,  and  hence,  functional  anomalies; 
hence  also,  in  man,  psychic  anomalies.  And  conversely,  if  per- 
fection of  form  has  been  attained,  it  leads  us  to  assume  that  the 
entire  organism  is  perfect  in  its  internal  organs  as  well,  and  in  its 
complex  physical  and  psychic  functional  action. 

"Assure  yourselves  and  one  another,"  says  Lelut  in  his  Cadre 
de  philosophic  et  de  Vhomme,  "that  wherever  you  see  a  change  in 
the  body,  you  will  have  to  search  for  a  corresponding  change  in  the 
intelligence.  Assure  yourselves  that  you  will  have  to  establish 
this  correlation  throughout  the  entire  scale,  from  the  lowest  degra- 
dations of  imbecility  to  the  highest  achievement  of  genius,  from 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  339 

the  clearest  and  strongest  mentality  to  that  which  is  most  pro- 
foundly and  irremediably  disordered." 

This  correlation  between  the  morphological  and  the  psychic 
personality  must  be  sought  throughout  the  entire  scale  of  human 
variations,  from  the  genius  to  the  most  degraded  of  imbeciles,  from 
the  strongest  and  most  upright  character  to  that  which  is  most 
profoundly  perturbed.  Hence  morphology  constitutes  a  funda- 
mental part  in  the  study  of  human  personality. 

The  principle  of  this  aforesaid  correlation  was  at  first  exem- 
plified in  the  field  of  biological  science  only  by  abnormal  persons, 
.whose  noticeable  deviations  from  the  customary  limits,  both  in 
the  external  form  of  the  body  and  in  their  psychic  manifestations, 
gave  proof  of  the  phenomenon  by  exaggerating  it.  In  his  classic 
work,  Traite  des  degenerescences,  Morel  asserts  that  "the  study  of 
physical  man  cannot  be  isolated  from  the  study  of  moral  man." 
But  in  our  own  day,  the  theory  has  been  marvellously  illuminated 
and  popularised  by  Cesare  Lombroso,  and  precisely  on  its  patho- 
logical side. 

The  Lombrosian  theories  were  so  rapidly  popularised  even 
before  they  were  fully  matured,  that  it  seemed  as  though  the  spirit 
of  the  times  was  ripe  to  receive  them,  and  had  awakened  to  greet 
the  new  order  of  thought,  after  having  long  slumbered  over  the 
old ;  thus  they  wrought  a  revolution  in  the  field  of  law  and  morality, 
and  even  laid  a  foundation  for  the  erection  of  a  new  pedagogy. 

Or  to  state  it  better,  they  again  brought  to  light  certain  prin- 
ciples of  truth  that  had  been  understood  even  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  For  the  principles  proclaimed  by  Lombroso  are 
in  their  general  line  certainly  nothing  new  nor  suddenly  derived 
from  a  study  of  modern  civilization;  the  belief  that  a  physical  stigma 
represents  a  moral  stigma  is  exceedingly  ancient.  In  the  Bible 
we  find  Solomon  saying:  we  may  read  the  heart  in  the  face. 
Homer  describes  the  malignant  Thyrsites  as  having  a  narrow  fore- 
head and  ferret-like  eyes.  Caesar  feared  only  those  conspirators 
who  were  pale  and  lean.  In  the  Middle  Ages  there  was  a  law 
which  held  that  in  case  of  doubt  as  to  which  of  two  men  was 
guilty,  the  uglier  looking  one  should  be  hanged.  And  this  same 
principle  has  been  established  from  time  immemorial  in  the 
current  wisdom  of  the  people,  as  is  demonstrated  by  proverbs, 
which  are  like  laws  graven  upon  stone,  and  have  been  gathered 
experimentally  through  the  repeated  observation  of  successive 


340  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

generations.  The  proverbs  tell  us  of  the  physical  stigmata  of  the 
wicked:  " Beware  of  those  who  bear  the  mark  of  God;"  "The 
bristles  prove  the  brute."  Even  in  art,  degenerative  stigmata  are 
introduced  to  represent  the  malevolent.  The  satyrs  are  repre- 
sented as  being  of  the  microcephalic  type.  The  devil  was  formerly 
represented  as  having  goat's  feet  and  a  tail;  Michelangelo  pictures 
him  with  a  narrow,  receding  forehead  and  pointed  ears. 

To-day  all  this  is  shown  to  be  true.  The  truth,  and  sometimes 
the  intuitive  semblances  of  truth  in  their  relation  to  outward 
phenomena,  have  the  most  ancient  and  diffuse  history,  because, 
since  they  always  existed,  they  were  analogously  interpreted  by 
the  intelligence  of  man.  And  this  is  proved  by  the  glorious  discov- 
eries of  positive  science,  which  we  may  trace  back  to  far  distant 
foreshado wings;  what  was  in  danger  of  being  lost  has  been  born 
again  with  an  overpowering  fertility.  The  great  theories  of  Dar- 
win regarding  evolution  were  already  perceived  by  Herodotus. 
The  cycle  of  indestructible  material,  proclaimed  by  Greek  phil- 
osophy, formed  the  palpitating  heart  of  the  teachings  of  Giordano 
Bruno ;  and  in  our  day  it  formed  the  fascinating  halo  of  materialism 
which  illuminated  the  face  of  my  own  teacher,  Jakob  Moleschott. 

Now,  the  fact  that  it  is  not  new  demonstrates  that  the  Lombro- 
sian  theory  explains  phenomena  which  really  exist,  since  they 
came  under  the  observation  of  man  from  the  earliest  times.  And 
the  fact  that  this  theory  has  become  popularised  tells  us  that  the 
times  were  ripe  to  fertilise  its  renovating  principles  into  practical 
action.  For  where  is  it  that  we  find  the  triumphant  success  of 
science?  The  attainment  of  its  most  profound  purposes?  We 
find  it  wherever  science  achieves  something  that  is  practical  and 
useful  for  all  mankind.  Because,  so  long  as  anything  is  merely 
perceived  or  looked  into,  or  even  deeply  studied,  it  never  attains 
the  apogee  of  its  scientific  glory  and  dignity  unless  it  finds  some 
means  of  benefiting  and  ameliorating  humanity. 

Lombroso  grasps  a  principle  and  turns  it  into  a  benefit;  and  he 
sends  it  broadcast  throughout  human  society,  to  purify  society  of 
the  spirit  of  personal  vengeance. 

Garibaldi  redeems  an  oppressed  people  and  saves  the  oppressors 
from  the  burden  of  being  unjust  and  tyrannical,  through  a  work  of 
humanity  which  has  no  national  boundary;  Lombroso,  by  means 
of  his  new  scientific  and  moral  principle,  effects  a  world-wide 
redemption  of  a  despised  and  outcast  class,  and  saves  us  from 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  341 

the  iniquitous  burden  of  social  vengeance.  Two  great  deeds  of 
heroism,  one  of  the  heart  and  the  other  of  the  brain;  two  great 
works  of  redemption. 

Nevertheless,  the  principle  of  a  morphological  and  psychic 
relationship  was  not  wholly  wanting  in  examples  of  practical 
application.  Not,  however,  in  the  case  of  man;  but  in  regard  to 
animals  it  had  been  utilised  for  a  long  time  back.  For  instance, 
when  a  horse  cannot  be  broken  by  ordinary  methods,  the  veterinary 
is  called  in,  and  he  either  discovers  some  ailment  and  prescribes  a 
treatment,  or  else  he  studies  the  conformation  of  the  forehead  and 
the  nasal  bones,  and  if  they  are  abnormal,  he  declares  that  the 
horse  is  absolutely  untameable.  In  India  the  natives  are  afraid 
of  the  solitary  elephant  with  a  narrow  forehead,  for  they  know  that 
he  is  ferocious. 

To-day  we  know  that  many  children  who  can  be  taught  nothing 
in  the  public  schools  are  really  sick  children,  in  whom  anomalies 
of  character  coincide  with  morphological  anomalies;  and  we  are 
beginning  to  replace  the  old  custom  of  blind  and  brutal  punishment 
with  a  personal  interest  that  leads  us  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the 
physician  and  to  establish  special  schools  for  the  mentally  deficient. 

We  may  say  that  this  new  and  reforming  principle  of  pedagogics 
and  the  school,  which  transforms  punishment  into  medical  care  and 
creates  special  educational  institutions  which  are  at  the  same  time 
sanatariums,  constitutes  the  pedagogical  application  of  the  Lom- 
brosian  theories  and  accomplishes  that  social  task  which  was 
foreordained  to  emanate  from  the  lofty  brain  of  Lombroso. 

In  its  special  application  to  pedagogics,  anthropology  aids  in 
the  difficult  task  by  its  diagnosis  between  the  normal  and  the 
abnormal  child. 

But  the  contribution  of  anthropology  to  pedagogics  is  vastly 
wider  than  this.  In  this  restricted  sense  of  diagnosis,  it  accom- 
plishes, to  be  sure,  a  complete  reform  of  the  penal  sciences,  but  it  is 
very  far  from  doing  like  service  to  the  science  of  pedagogy. 

Scientific  pedagogy  must  concern  itself  before  all  and  above  all, 
with  normal  individuals,  in  order  to  protect  them  in  their  develop- 
ment under  the  guidance  of  biological  laws,  and  to  aid  each  pupil 
to  adapt  himself  to  his  social  environment,  i.e.,  to  direct  him  to 
that  form  of  employment  which  is  best  suited  to  his  individual 
temperament  and  tendencies. 

In  this  new  task,  anthropology  not  only  studies  the  individual, 


342  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

but  also  gives  real  and  personal  contributions  to  the  solution  of 
many  pedagogic  problems;  among  others,  that  relating  to  study 
after  school  hours;  to  rewards  and  punishments;  to  physical  train- 
ing, elocution,  etc. ;  while,  by  regarding  the  children  as  the  effects 
of  biological  and  social  causes,  it  establishes  new  and  enlightening 
standards  of  morality  and  justice,  and  reveals  to  educators 
responsibilities  not  hitherto  conceived.  It  will  suffice  to  call  to 
mind  the  fact  that  the  most  studious  children,  and  therefore  those 
who  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  praise  and  prizes,  show  a  defi- 
ciency in  weight,  in  chest  development,  and  in  muscular  force; 
consequently,  a  physiological  impoverishment  the  blame  for  which 
must  be  attributed  to  an  ignorance  of  hygiene  and  of  anthropology, 
such  as  still  persists  throughout  the  whole  field  of  pedagogy;  an 
ignorance  which  leads  the  teacher  to  encourage  by  his  praises  the 
impoverishment  of  the  best  forces  that  reveal  themselves  in  the 
school  (the  most  intelligent  and  studious  children)  in  an  age  when 
social  industries,  multiplied  and  grown  to  a  giant  size,  demand 
the  cooperation  of  a  vigorous  race,  and  to  inspire  by  rewards  and 
praise  a  sentiment  of  superiority  and  of  vanity  in  an  age  that  is 
dominated  by  the  sentiment  of  universal  equality  and  brotherhood. 

The  teacher  ought,  on  the  contrary,  to  appoint  himself  the 
defender  of  the  race,  and  to  demand,  among  his  other  rights,  that 
of  making  such  social  reforms  and  such  reforms  in  the  school  and 
in  pedagogics  as  may  be  necessary  to  the  accomplishment  of  his 
purpose,  which  is  the  attainment  of  the  highest  degree  of  civilisa- 
tion and  of  prosperity. 

But  this  subject  would  lead  us  to  repeat  principles  on  which  we 
have  already  insisted ;  it  will  suffice  to  reassert  that  the  tendency  of 
anthropology  is  undoubtedly  toward  a  reform  in  the  school  and 
the  opening  of  a  new  era  in  pedagogy. 

The  Significance  of  the  So-called  Physical  Stigmata  of  Degenera- 
tion.— We  have  studied  so  many  congenital  malformations  and 
pathological  deformations  that  a  synthetic  statement  of  their 
significance  becomes  necessary.  All  the  more  so,  because  certain 
principles  in  this  connection,  already  widely  circulated  among  the 
general  public,  have  now  been  rejected  by  science. 

One  of  these  principles  refers  to  the  so-called  atavism  and  formed 
part  of  the  original  Lombrosian  doctrines :  but  blessed  is  the  scientist 
who  is  obliged  to  correct  himself,  for  that  means  that  his  brain  is 
still  fertile. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  343 

Certain  morphological  anomalies  call  to  mind  forms  of  the  in- 
ferior races  and  species,  from  which,  according  to  the  original 
Darwinian  doctrine  of  evolution,  the  human  species  had  descended 
in  a  direct  line:  hence  the  term  "atavistic  survival."  It  will  suffice 
to  mention  the  receding  forehead  that  calls  to  mind  the  Neander- 
thal cranium,  the  long  simian  arms,  the  prognathism  distinctive 
of  the  inferior  human  races  and  of  animals,  microcephaly  which 
suggests  the  crania  of  anthropoid  apes,  the  mongoloid  eyes  and 
protruding  cheek-bones,  which  recall  the  yellow  races;  the 
"canine"  ear,  the  wooly  or  smooth  hair,  polytrichia,  the  dark 
skin,  etc. 

Now,  all  this  assemblage  of  stigmata  which  went  under  the 
name  of  atavistic,  or  absolute  retrogression,  were  held  to  be  in  almost 
direct  relation  to  degeneration. 

Degeneration  was  supposed  to  revive  in  us  forms  that  had  been 
superseded  in  the  course  of  evolution,  and  hence  also  psychic 
states  that  had  also  been  superseded  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race;  it  is  well  known  that,  according  to  Lombroso,  a  criminal  might 
be  denned  as  a  savage,  a  barbarian  born  among  us,  yet  still  having 
within  him  his  particular  instincts  of  theft  and  slaughter. 

To-day,  since  \  the  original  interpretation  of  the  Darwinian 
theory  has  been  discarded,  with  it  have  fallen  all  those  deductions 
which  medicine  and  sociology  were  in  too  great  haste  to  draw,  in 
order  to  make  scientific  application  of  them. 

In  conclusion,  the  principle  remains  firmly  established  of  a 
correlation  between  physical  and  psychic  anomalies,  which  forms 
the  very  essence  of  the  Lombrosian  theory.  What  science  wishes 
to-day  to  correct  is  the  atavistic  interpretation  of  stigmata  and  of 
types  of  degenerates.  This  takes  nothing  away  from  the  brilliant 
record  of  Lombroso,  who  interpreted  biological  and  pathological 
phenomena  in  the  selfsame  light  that  shed  glory  upon  Ernest 
Haeckel,  namely,  the  Darwinian  theory.  In  the  first  enthusiasm 
of  that  luminous  flame  which  had  wrought  a  reawakening  of 
thought  throughout  all  Europe  and  the  civilised  world  Lombroso 
tried  to  explain  according  to  the  letter  what  could  properly  be 
explained  only  according  to  the  spirit ;  that  is  to  say,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  very  broad  principle  (evolution  and  the  successive 
formation  of  species)  which  had  been  divined  but  not  yet 
demonstrated. 

We  ought  to  have  recourse,  in  interpreting  congenital  (degen- 


344  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

erative)  malformations  to  explanations  analogous  to  those  in  the 
case  of  acquired  deformations,  i.e.,  to  pathological  explanations. 

We  find  ourselves  in  all  these  cases  in  the  presence  of  patho- 
logical phenomena  affecting  either  the  species  or  the  individual.  On 
the  strength  of  analogies  shown  by  certain  malformations,  the  tend- 
ency to-day  is  to  consider  them  as  ''arrests  of  development"  or  phe- 
nomena of  infantilism,  such,  for  example,  as  macrocephaly,  macro- 
scelia,  nipples  or  shoulders  placed  too  high,  nose  tending  to 
flatness,  handle-shaped  ears,  etc. — a  whole  series  of  stigmata 
which  go  by  the  name  of  stigmata  of  relative  retrogression. 

Meanwhile  there  are  other  malformations  which  merely  deviate 
from  the  normal  form  (Morselli's  " simple  deviation"),  and  they 
may  deviate  either  in  the  way  of  an  excess  (hyperplasia),  or  of  a 
deficiency  (hypoplasia),  as,  for  example,  macroglossia,  microdontia, 
macro-  and  microphthalmia,  etc. ;  or  they  may  deviate  in  a  true  and 
actual  sense  (paraplasms),  as,  for  example,  in  the  various  asym- 
metries (plagiocephaly,  plagioprosopy,  etc.).  This  whole  group 
of  above-mentioned  stigmata,  which  seem  to  have  a  congenital 
origin,  or,  rather,  to  be  connected  in  a  general  way  with  growth 
itself,  are  called  malformations,  to  distinguish  them  from  deforma- 
tions, which  evidently  have  an  acquired  origin,  especially  from 
pathological  causes,  such,  for  instance,  as  rachitis  and  forms  of 
paralysis  which  arrest  the  development  of  a  limb,  etc.,  resulting 
in  functional  and  morphological  asymmetry. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations  (associated,  as  we  have  said,  with  individual 
development)  may  be  found  in  all  individuals  who,  through 
various  causes  (degeneration,  disease,  denutrition,  defects  of 
adaptment),  have  undergone  any  alteration  in  development.  And, 
since  we  have  not  yet  acquired  a  recognised  standard  of  morality 
of  generation,  and  the  social  environment,  including  the  school, 
weighs  heavily  upon  humanity  in  the  plastic  state,  who  is  there 
without  malformation?  Complete  normality  is  a  desideratum,  an 
ideal  toward  which  we  are  progressing,  and,  we  might  add,  it  is  the 
battle-flag  of  the  teacher. 

Accordingly,  all  men  have  malformations.  It  is  interesting  to 
see  how  they  are  affected  by  variations  in  age  and  social  condition, 
and  how  they  are  distributed  among  normal  persons  and  degen- 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS 


345 


erates,  in  order  to  measure  the  extent  of  their  contribution  to  the 
diagnosis  between  normal  and  abnormal  man. 

On  the  basis  of  notes  taken  from  an  important  work  by  Rossi,* 


Fia.  138. — Percentage  of  stigmata  among  the  peasantry,  the  labouring  class  and  the 
•  wealthy  class,  for  children  and  adults. 

I  have  drawn  up  the  following  table,  relating  to  malformations 
based  upon  a  comparative  study  of  children  and  adults,  grouped 
under  three  different  social  conditions — peasants,  city  labourers 
and  persons  of  the  wealthy  class. 

*  Rossi,  Anthropological  Anomalies  in  their  relations  to  social  conditions  and  to  degenera- 
tion. 


346  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

At  the  further  extremity  of  the  horizontal  lines  will  be  found 
the  figures  recording  the  number  of  times  that  any  one  anomaly 
occurs  in  a  hundred  instances.  The  other  indications  are  explained 
in  the  figure  itself. 

From  this  it  is  apparent  that  anomalies  of  the  cranium  are  much 
more  rare  than  those  of  the  face,  both  in  children  and  in  adults. 

But  in  children  the  anomalies  of  the  cranium  (and  this  includes 
the  cases  of  plagiocephaly),  are  much  more  frequent  than  in  adults 
in  all  social  classes;  this  shows  that  in  the  course  of  growth  the 
malformations  of  the  cranium  have  to  a  great  extent  disappeared. 
In  regard  to  the  face,  on  the  contrary,  or,  at  least,  in  regard  to 
certain  malformations  of  the  face,  the  opposite  holds  good;  the 
mandible  and  the  zygomata,  or,  in  general,  that  part  of  the  face 
which  grows  rapidly  during  the  period  of  puberty,  show  more 
anomalies  in  the  case  of  adults  than  in  the  case  of  children. 

This  shows  us  that  a  face  which  is  still  beautiful  in  childhood 
may  acquire  malformations  in  successive  periods  of  growth.  In 
simpler  words,  the  facts  may  be  expressed  as  follows:  that  the 
cranium  corrects  itself  and  the  face  spoils  itself  in  the  course  of 
growth. 

But  in  the  case  of  facial  asymmetries  the  same  thing  occurs  that 
we  have  already  seen  in  regard  to  plagiocephaly ;  it  is  more  frequent 

in  children,  hence  asymmetries  are  infan- 
tile stigmata. 

Some  important  characteristics  are  to 
be  noted  regarding  the  handle-shaped  ear; 
all  children  have  ears  proportionally  larger 
than  those  of  adults  and  the  handle-shaped 
form  is  very  frequent  in  normal  children, 
regardless  of  the  social  condition  to  which 

FIG.     139.-Two     small    ex-          e 

ampies  of  Morel's  and  Wilder-  they  belong.  This  malformation  corrects 
muth>s  ean  itself  in  the  course  of  growth,  being  far 

less  frequent  in  adults  of  the  wealthy  class  and  even  among  the 
labouring  classes;  but  among  the  peasantry  it  remains  permanently, 
almost  as  though  it  were  a  class  stigma.  Although  the  mechanical 
theories  are  in  disrepute  as  an  interpretation  of  morphological 
phenomena,  nevertheless  it  is  worth  while  to  note  the  singular 
frequency  of  this  stigma  in  peasants,  in  connection  with  the  habit 
of  straining  the  ear  to  catch  the  faintest  sounds,  distant  voices, 
echoes,  etc.,  for  which  the  senses  of  peasants  are  extremely  acute. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS 


347 


The  greater  frequency  of  prominent  superciliary  arches  in 
adult  peasants  and  labourers  may  also  be  considered  in  relation  to 
a  defective  cerebral  development,  connected,  perhaps,  with  illit- 
eracy, etc.;  furthermore,  the  superciliary  arches,  together  with  a 
more  than  normal  development  of  the  jaw  bones,  are  stigmata 
which  usually  occur  together  as  determining  factors  of  an  inferior 
morphological  type.  The  fact  also  that  an  excessive  development 
of  the  mandible,  unlike  other  malformations,  is  found  with  the  same 
frequency  among  adults  of  the  peasantry  and  the  labouriug  class, 
gives  to  this  anomaly  the  significance  of  a  stigma  of  the  poorer 
classes.  It  should  be  remembered  that  children  of  inferior  intel- 
ligence have  a  deeper  mandible. 

What  is  quite  interesting  to  know,  in  addition  to  the  frequency 
of  stigmata  at  various  ages  and  in  the  various  social  conditions, 
is  the  number  of  them  that  may  coexist  in  the  same  individual.  It 
was  already  asserted  by  Lombroso  that  a  single  undoubted  mal- 
formation was  not  enough  to  prove  degeneracy,  but  that  it  depended 
upon  the  number  of  stigmata  existing  simultaneously  in  the  same 
individual.  Now,  confining  our  attention  to  normal  individuals, 
we  find,  according  to  Rossi,  that  the  individual  number  is  less 
among  the  well-to-do  than  among  the  poor;  and  that  it  is  less 
among  the  peasantry  than  among  the  working  class.  The  working 
class  in  the  cities  are  accordingly  in  the  worst  condition  of  physical 
development.  Furthermore,  children  always  show  a  greater  num- 
ber of  individual  malformations  than  adults. 

INDIVIDUAL  NUMBER  OF  MORPHOLOGICAL  ANOMALIES 


Number  of 
anomalies 

Adults:  to  every  100  individuals 

Children:  to  every  100  individuals 

Labourers 

Peasants 

Well-to-do 

Labourers 

Peasants 

Well-to-do 

4 
56     • 
31 
9 

18 
36 
26 

14 
68 
18 

12 
44 
38 
6 

1-2 
3-4 
5-6 

18 
52 

27 

16 
68 
13 

From  which  it  appears  that  only  4  per  cent,  of  the  labouring 
class  are  without  malformations,  while  the  peasantry  and  the  well- 
to-do  have  from  18  to  14  per  cent.  Among  normal  adults  there  is  a 


348  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

preponderance  of  persons  having  1-2  stigmata;  while  those  having 
3-4  stigmata  are  more  frequent  than  those  without  any  at  all. 

Excepting  for  a  few  labourers,  there  are  no  normal  persons  with 
5-6  malformations;  in  fact,  this  is  the  number  of  coexisting  mal- 
formations that  is  held  to  be  the  test  of  degeneration,  the  sign  of  an 
abnormal  morphological  individuality. 

Among  children,  on  the  contrary,  this  individual  number  of 
malformations  (5-6)  occurs,  even  in  the  wealthy  classes,  so  that  the 
child  and  the  adult  cannot  be  judged  by  the  same  standards. 

The  prevailing  number  of  stigmata  among  children  is  3-4. 
Therefore,  in  the  course  of  growth,  many  of  these  malformations 
are  eliminated.  It  should  be  noted  that  children  without  malfor- 
mations are  found  only  among  the  prosperous  classes  and  in  a 
rather  small  percentage  (12  per  cent.). 

Accordingly,  social  conditions  bring  about  a  difference  not  only 
in  robustness,  stature,  etc.,  but  also  in  the  degree  of  beauty  which 
the  individual  is  likely  to  attain.  The  social  ideal  of  the  establish- 
ment of  justice  for  all  mankind  is  consequently  at  the  same  time  a 
moral  and  ossthetic  ideal. 

Another  parallel  that  it  is  interesting  to  draw  is  that  between 
the  most  unfortunate  social  class  (the  working  class)  and  the  degen- 
erates. We  have  seen  that  the  working  class  has  the  highest  in- 
dividual number  of  stigmata.  Rossi  compares  them  with  two 
other  categories  of  persons  who  are  strongly  suspected  of  being 
degenerates,  or  who  at  least  must  include  a  notable  proportion  of 
degenerates  among  their  number,  namely,  beggars,  as  regards  the 
adults,  and  orphans,  as  regards  the  children. 

These  classes  differ  in  the  general  frequency  of  malformations; 
in  fact,  the  chronic  anomalies,  taken  collectively,  give  17  per  cent, 
for  the  labouring  class  and  25  per  cent,  for  beggars.  But  the  dif- 
ference becomes  strikingly  apparent  when  we  come  to  consider 
the  individual  number  of  stigmata. 


Anomalies 

Labourers  (per  cent.) 

Beggars  (per  cent.) 

3-4 
5-6 

31 
9 

41 
21.3 

THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS 


349 


And  still  greater  is  the  difference  between  the  children  of 
labourers  and  the  orphan  children. 

FREQUENCY  OF  ANOMALIES  IN  CHILDREN  (PERCENTAGE) 


Anomalies 

Labouring  class, 
pauperism 

Orphans,  degenera- 
tion 

Cranial  anomalies  in  general  

32 

39 

Forehead  very  low  

16 

20  8 

Alveolar  prognathism  

4 

10 

Enlarged  mandible  ; 

20 

25 

Plagiocephaly  

16 

45  8 

Prominent  cheek-bones  

16 

41  6 

Facial  asymmetry  

28 

35  4 

Anomalies  of  teeth  

24 

37  5 

We  see  therefore  that  degeneration  exerts  a  most  notable  influ- 
ence upon  morphological  anomalies;  it  is  far  more  serious  than 
external  (social)  conditions. 

Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka,  studying  the  distribution  of  malformations 
and  deformations  among  poor  children  who  were  inmates  of  a 
large  New  York  orphan  asylum  (634  males  and  274  females)  dis- 
tinguishes the  morphological  anomalies  into  three  categories: 
Those  that  are  congenital  (degeneration);  those  acquired  through 
pathological  causes  (diseases),  and  those  acquired  through  the 
circumstances  of  social  adaptment,  or,  as  the  author  expresses  it, 
through  habit.  And  to  these  he  adds  still  another  category  of 
stigmata  the  causes  of  which  remain  uncertain. 

If  we  examine  the  following  extremely  interesting  table,  we 
see  at  once  that  in  the  case  of  children  the  anomalies  of  form  are 
associated  with  degeneration  and  with  disease,  because  the  anomalies 
acquired  individually  by  the  child  as  the  result  of  personal  habits 
are  comparatively  so  few  in  number  as  to  be  quite  negligible,  and 
all  of  them  are  exclusively  in  reference  to  the  trunk;  in  other  words, 
a  result  of  the  position  assumed  on  school  benches. 

As  between  degeneration  and  disease,  the  proportion  of  anoma- 
lies caused  by  the  former  is  considerably  more  than  double.  Hence, 
the  great  majority  of  malformations  have  their  origin,  so  to  speak, 
outside  of  the  individual,  the  responsibility  resting  on  the  parents. 


23 


350 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Organs  in 
regard  to 
which  the 
anomalies 
occur 

Anomalies 

Males 

Females 

Congenital 

Pathological 

Acquired 
through 
habit 

Cause 
uncertain 

Congenital 

Pathological 

"$* 

KyaS 

'3  §•§ 

o-  2  J3 
3  Jq** 

<  +-> 

Cause 
uncertain 

Head  

74 

15 

26 

10 

Periosteum  .  .  . 

1 
17 
1 
11 

Hair  

26 
15 
51 

2 
25 
68 

1 

1 
10 
15 

Forehead  

8 
17 

1 

4 
6 

Face  

Eves  .  . 

Ears  

221 
67 
51 
88 
14 
5 
60 
275 

88 
19 
41 
30 
6 
3 
39 

Teeth  

20 
7 
59 

37 
104 
81 
112 
2 
11 
1 

4 
3 
40 

27 
23 
44 
54 

Gums  

Palate  

Uvula  

Body  (bust)  .  . 
Limbs  

54 
14 

1 

72 

18 
4 

9 

1 
3 

Genital  organs 

Totals  
Percentage  . 

873 
40 

324 
10 

72 
4 

390 

18 

256 

45 

120 

21 

9 
1 

173 
30 

The  greatest  number  of  anomalies  due  to  degeneration  occur  in 
connection  with  the  ear,  and  the  genital  organs,  and  next  in  order 
come  those  of  the  palate,  the  teeth  and  the  limbs.  The  maximum 
number  of  anomalies  due  to  pathological  causes  are  in  connection 
with  the  head,  and  principally  with  the  face;  after  that,  with  the 
palate,  and  then  with  the  bust. 

The  anomalies  most  difficult  to  diagnose  seem  to  be  those  relat- 
ing to  the  gums,  the  palate  and  the  uvula,  in  regard  to  which  it  is 
not  easy  to  determine  whether  they  are  due  to  degeneration  or  to 
disease. 

In  order  that  we  may  have  a  clear  understanding  regarding  malformations, 
it  is  well  to  insist  upon  still  another  point:  Malformation  does  not  signify  de- 
viation from  a  type  of  ideal  beauty,  but  from  normality. 

Now,  there  are  normal  forms  which  are  very  far  from  beautiful  and  which 
are  associated  with  race.  For  instance,  prognathism,  ultra-dolichocephaly,  a 
certain  degree  of  flat-foot,  prominent  cheek-bones,  the  Mongolian  eye,  etc., 
are  all  of  them  characteristics  which  are  regarded  by  us  as  the  opposite  of 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  351 

beautiful,  but  they  are  normal  in  certain  races  (therefore  practical  experience 
is  indispensable).  These  principles  which,  when  thus  announced,  are  perfectly 
clear,  must  be  extended  far  enough  to  include  that  sum  total  of  individuals 
whom  we  are  in  the  habit  of  calling  our  race.  That  we  are  hybrids,  still  show- 
ing more  or  less  trace  of  the  racial  stocks  which  originally  concurred  in  our 
formation,  is  well  known,  but  not  clearly  enough.  The  primitive  races  are  more 
or  less  evident  in  different  centres  of  population;  for  instance,  in  the  large  and 
promiscuous  cities,  hybridism  tends  more  or  less  completely,  to  mask  the  typesf 
of  race,  producing  individual  uniformity  through  an  intermixture  of  character- 
istics that  renders  all  the  people  very  much  alike  (civilised  races).  These  are 
the  individuals  who  form  the  majority  of  the  population,  and  whom  we  are  in 
the  habit  of  regarding  as  being  normally  formed.  But  when  we  get  away  from 
the  big  centres  it  may  happen,  and  indeed  does  happen,  that  the  primitive 
racial  forms  or  types  become  more  apparent;  thus,  for  example,  I  found  in 
Latium  almost  pure  racial  types  at  Castelli  Romani  (dolichocephalics,  brunette 
type,  short  stature),  and  at  Orte  (brachycephalics,  blond  type,  tall  stature); 
the  nuclei  of  population  at  Castelli  were  especially  pure.  Now,  as  a  result  of 
a  highly  particularised  series  of  observations  I  found  normal  forms  that  were  not 
beautiful  in  each  of  these  races;  thus,  for  example,  in  the  brunette  race,  while 
the  face  is  extremely  beautiful  and  delicate,  the  hands  are  coarse,  the  feet 
show  a  tendency  toward  flat-foot,  the  breasts  are  pear-shaped,  pendent  and 
abundantly  hairy;  in  the  blond  type,  on  the  contrary,  while  the  facial  lineaments 
are  coarse  and  quite  imperfect,  the  hands,  feet  and  breasts  are  marvellously 
beautiful. 

Accordingly,  the  marks  of  beauty  are  distributed  in  nature  among  the  different 
races;  there  is  no  race  in  existence  that  is  wholly  beautiful,  just  as  there  is  no  indi- 
vidual in  existence  who  is  perfect  in  all  his  parts. 

Furthermore,  since  there  is  for  every  separate  characteristic  a  long  series 
of  individual  variations,  both  above  and  below  (see  chapters  on  Biometry  and 
Statistical  Methodology),  it  is  very  easy  to  assume  that  we  are  on  the  track  of  a 
malformation,  when  it  is  really  a  matter  of  racial  characteristic.  And  this  is 
all  the  more  likely  to  constitute  a  source  of  error,  because  the  school  of  Lombroso 
promulgated  the  morphological  doctrine  that  a  degenerate  sometimes  shows  an 
exaggeration  of  ethnical  characteristics. 

Thus,  for  example,  we  meet  with  ultra-brachycephalics  and  ultra-dolicho- 
cephalics  among  the  criminal  classes. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  teacher  who  has  made  a  study  of  anthropology  receives 
an  appointment  in  one  or  another  of  the  Castelli  Romani.  Among  the  normal 
individuals  studied  by  me,  certain  ones  showed  a  cephalic  index  of  70.  Now,  a 
teacher  accustomed  to  'examine  the  crania  of  city  children  and  to  find  that  the 
limits  range  more  or  less  closely  around  mesaticephaly,  would  be  led  to  assume 
that  he  was  in  the  presence  of  an  abnormal  individual. 

Now,  in  the  places  where  morphological  characteristics  of  race  are  most  per- 
sistent, the  social  forms  are  primitive,  and  so  also  are  the  sentiments,  the  customs 
and  the  ethical  level,  because  purity  of  race  means  an  absence  of  hybridism,  i.e.,  an 
absence  of  intimate  communication  with  human  society  evolving  in  the  flood-tide 
of  civilisation.  Consequently,  in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  characteris- 


352  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

tic  (ultra-dolichocephaly),  the  individual  would  probably  show  an  intellectual 
inferiority,  an  inferiority  of  the  ethical  sense,  etc.,  and  this  would  serve  to 
strengthen  the  teacher's  first  impression.  But  the  normal  limits  of  growth  for  a 
given  age,  the  absence  of  real  and  actual  malformations  (for  instance,  in  this  case 
there  is  probability  of  facial  beauty,  etc.),  would  cause  him  very  quickly  to  correct 
his  first  judgment  with  a  more  thoughtful  diagnosis.  Therefore  a  study  of  local 
ethnical  characteristics  would  be  very  useful  as  a  basis  for  pedagogical  anthro- 
pology, as  I  have  tried  to  show  in  one  of  my  works  (Importanm  della  etnologia 
regionale  nell'antropologia  pedagogica,  "The  importance  of  regional  ethnology  in 
pedagogical  anthropology"). 

And  this  also  holds  good  for  the  interpretation  of  true  malformations. 

We  have  hitherto  been  guided  in  our  observation  of  so-called  stigmata  by 
analytical  criteria,  that  is,  we  have  been  content  with  determining  the  single  or 
manifold  malformations  in  the  individual  without  troubling  ourselves  to  deter- 
mine their  morphological  genesis  or  their  genesis  of  combination. 

For  example,  the  ogival  palate  is  a  well-known  anomaly  of  form,  but  in  all 
probability  it  will  occur  in  an  individual  whose  family  has  the  high  and  narrow 
palate  that  is  met  with,  for  instance,  as  the  normal  type  among  the  dolicho- 
cephalics  of  Latium;  the  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  flat-foot,  etc.  Multi- 
fold diastemata  and  macrodontia  will,  on  the  contrary,  be  more  easily  met  with  in 
families  whose  palate  is  wide  and  low  (brachycephalics).  And  just  as  certain 
normal  forms  or  characteristics  are  found  in  combination  in  a  single  individual 
(for  instance,  brachycephaly,  fair  hair,  tall  stature,  etc.),  so  it  is  also  in  the  case 
of  stigmata,  which  will  be  found  occurring  together  in  one  individual,  not  by 
chance,  but  according  to  the  laws  of  morphological  combination,  and  probably 
as  an  exaggeration  of  (unlovely)  characteristics  which  belong,  as  normal  forms,  to 
the  family  or  race. 

There  are  already  a  number  of  authorities  on  neuropathology,  De  Sanctis 
among  others,  who  have  noted  that  there  is  an  ugly  family  type  which  sometimes 
reproduces  itself  in  a  sickly  member  of  the  family,  in  such  a  way  as  to  exaggerate 
pathologically  the  unlovely  but  normal  characteristics  of  the  other  members,  and 
furthermore,  that  an  exaggeration  of  unlovely  characteristics  may  increase 
from  generation  to  generation,  accompanied  by  a  disintegration  of  the  psychic 
personality. 

Consequently,  a  knowledge  of  the  morphological  characteristics  which  in  all 
probability  belong  to  the  races  from  which  the  subjects  to  be  examined  are  de- 
rived, has  a  number  of  important  aspects.  The  literature  of  anthropology  is 
certainly  not  rich  in  racial  studies,  consequently,  I  feel  that  it  will  not  be  un- 
profitable to  summarise  in  the  following  table  the  characteristics  that  distin- 
guish the  two  racial  types  encountered  by  me  among  the  female  population  of 
Latium. 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS 


353 


TABLE  OF  THE  DIFFERENTIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  TWO 

RACIAL  TYPES 

Brunette  Dolichocephalics  and  Blond  Brachycephalics 


Organs  to  which 
the  characteristics 
refer 

Dolichocephalic,  brunette 
type  of  low  stature 

Brachycephalic,  blond  type 
of  tall  stature 

Visage  

Elongated  ellipsoidal  or  ovoi- 

7 

Rounded,    broad;    coarse    fea- 

dal; fine,  delicate  lineaments, 
rounded    curves,     softly 
modeled. 

tures;  contour  frequently  an- 
gular,  especially  around  the 
cheek-bones. 

Eves.  . 

Large,  usually  almond-shaped; 

Not    so    large,    the    form    fre- 

pigmentation brown,  shading 
from  black  to  chestnut. 

quently  tending  to  the  oblique; 
the    contours    of     the    inner 
angle  of  the  eye    less  clear- 
cut,  owing  to  the   plica  epi- 
cantica.     Pigmentation   light 
gray,   blue. 

Nose  

Very  leptorrhine;  nostrils  deli- 

Leptorrhine,    tending    toward 

cate  and  mobile. 

mesorrhine;    sometimes    the 
nose  is  fleshy,  nostrils  thick 
and    slightly    movable    only. 

Mouth 

Labial    aperture    small,    lips 

Labial  aperture  wide    lips  fre- 

finely modeled  and  very  red. 

quently  fleshy,  and  not  well 
modeled. 

Teeth  

Small,    with    curved    surface, 

Teeth  large  and   flat,    enamel 

gleaming,  almost  as  wide  as 
long,  not  greatly  dissimilar, 
"like  equal  pearls." 

dull;    difference   between    in- 
cisors,  canines,  etc.,    sharply 
marked. 

Palate  

Very  high  and  narrow  (ogival). 

Flat  and  wide  

Profile  

Proopic 

Platyopic                

Ear  

Finely  modeled  small,  delicate 

Often  irregular,  large,  thick. 

Frontal  line  of  roots 
of  hair. 

'Very  distinct;  forehead  small. 

Indistinct;      forehead     protu- 
berant. 

Neck  

Long  and  slender  flexible 

Short  more  or  less  stocky  

Thorax 

Flattened  in   antero-posterior 

Projecting  forward             .    .  . 

direction. 

354 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


TABLE  OF  THE  DIFFERENTIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  TWO 

RACIAL  TYPES.— Continued 
Brunette  Dolichocephalics  and  Blond  Brachycephalics 


Organs  to  which 
the  characteristics 
refer 

Dolichocephalic,  brunette 
type  of  low  stature 

Brachycephalic,  blond  type 
of  tall  stature 

Breasts  

Position  low,  form  tending  to 

Position   high     breasts   round* 

pear-shape;    nipples   slightly 
raised,   auerole  broad;  often 
hairy  between  the  breasts. 

nipple     prominent,      aureole 
email  and  rose-colored;  always 
hairless. 

Pelvis    and    abdo- 
men. 

High  and  narrow;  the  abdo- 
men becomes  prominent  to- 
ward the  thirtieth  year,  even 
in  unmarried  women. 

Low  and  broad;  the  abdomen 
does  not  become  prominent. 

Lumbar  curve  

Slightly  pronounced;  position 

Quite  pronounced;  position  of 

of  buttocks  low. 

buttocks  high. 

Limbs  

Distal  port  on  slightly  "shorter 

Distal  portion  slightly  longer 

(as  compared  with  the  prox- 
imal) ;  limbs  slender. 

(as  compared  with  the  prox- 
imal);   limbs    well    endowed 
with  muscles. 

Hands  

Coarse;  palm  long  and  narrow; 

Delicate,   palm   broad,   fingers 

fingers  short. 

long. 

Fingers  

Short,  thick,  with  flattened  ex- 

Long, tapering;  nails  with  deep 

tremities;  nails  flat,  not  very 
pink  nor  very  transparent. 

placed  quicks,  rosy  and  shin- 
ing. 

Palmar  and  digital 
papillae 

Coarse;  frequently  with  geo- 
metric figures  on  the  finger 
tips;  pallid. 

Very  fine,  rosy,  and  with  open 
designs. 

Feet.. 

Bie:  form  tendine  to  flatness.  . 

Small,  much  arched.  . 

Body  as  a  whole . . . 


Slender;  slight  muscularity. 
Tendency  toward  stoutness 
in  old  age  with  deformation 
of  the  body. 


Beautiful;  strong  muscles.  No 
tendency  toward  too  much 
flesh.  Furthermore,  the  body 
preserves  its  contours. 


Complexion '  Brunette  and  dark. 


White. 


Color  of  hair  

Black  to  chestnut 

Blond                    

Form  of  hair  

Short,  always  wavy  or  curlv, 

Long,  straight,  section  slightly 

fine  with  ellipsoidal  section. 

elliptical,   and  sometimes  al- 
most round. 

Hair  on  body.  .  . 

Growth     of     hair    sometimes 

The  surface  of  the  body  is  hair- 

found on  thorax  and  on  th6 
legs. 

less. 

THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  355 

The  Origin  of  Malformations  during  Development. — Malfor- 
mations are  a  morphological  index,  and  we  have  already  shown 
that  there  is  a  relation  between  the  physical  and  the  psychical 
personality.  A  defective  physical  development  tells  us  that  the 
psychic  personality  must  also  have  its  defects  (especially  in  regard 
to  the  intelligence). 

Not  only  degenerates,  but  even  we  normal  beings,  in  the  con- 
flict of  social  life,  and  because  of  our  congenital  weaknesses,  have 
felt  that  we  were  losing,  or  that  we  were  failing  to  acquire  the  rich 
possibilities  latent  in  our  consciousness,  and  that  vainly  formed  the 
height  of  our  ambition.  And  when  this  occurred,  the  body  also 
lost  something  of  the  beauty  which  it  might  have  attained,  or 
rather,  it  lacked  the  power  to  develop  it.  In  the  words  of  Rous- 
seau, "Our  intellectual  gifts,  our  vices,  our  virtues,  and  conse- 
quently our  characters,  are  all  dependent  upon  our  organism." 

Nevertheless,  this  interrelation  must  be  understood  in  a  very 
wide  sense,  and  is  modified  according  to  the  period  of  embryonal 
or  extrauterine  life  at  which  a  lesion  or  a  radical  disturbance  in 
development  chances  to  occur.  In  a  treatise  entitled  The  Problems 
of  Degeneration,  in  which  the  most  modern  ideas  regarding  degen- 
eration are  summed  up,  and  new  standards  of  social  morality 
advocated,  Brugia  gives  a  most  graphic  diagram,  which  I  take  the 
liberty  of  reproducing. 

ABC        D 
•     o     O     O 


2  5? 

2  a- 


5'      «j 

g.      ° 


From  the  little  black  point  to  the  big  circle  are  represented 
the  different  stages  of  embryonal  and  foetal  development,  until 
we  reach  the  child.  In  A  we  have  the  fertilized  ovum.  Here 
it  may  be  said  that  the  new  individual  does  not  yet  exist;  we  are 
at  a  transition  point  between  two  adults  (the  parents)  and  a  new 
organism,  which  is  about  to  develop.  Now  comes  the  embryo, 
which  may  be  called  the  new  individual  in  a  potential  state;  then 
the  foetus,  in  which  the  human  form  is  at  last  attained;  and  lastly 
the  child,  which  will  proceed  onward  toward  the  physical  and 


356  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

spiritual  conquests  of  human  life.  But  so  long  as  an  individual 
has  not  completely  developed,  deviations  may  occur  in  his  develop- 
ment; but  these  will  be  just  so  much  the  graver,  in  proportion 
as  the  individual  is  in  a  more  plastic  state. 

We  should  reserve  the  term  degeneration,  real  and  actual,  to 
that  which  presupposes  an  alteration  at  A,  i.e.,  at  the  time  of 
conception.  An  alteration  all  the  graver  if  it  antedates  A,  that 
is  to  say,  if  it  preexisted  in  the  ovum  and  in  the  fertilizing  spermato- 
zoon, i.e.,  in  the  parents.  In  this  case,  there  is  no  use  in  talking 
of  a  direct  educative  and  prophylactic  intervention  on  behalf  of 
the  individual  resulting  from  this  conception;  the  intervention 
must  be  directed  toward  all  adult  individuals  who  have  attained 
the  power  of  procreation.  And  in  this  consists  the  greatest 
moral  problem  of  our  times — sexual  education  and  the  sentiment 
of  responsibility  toward  the  species.  All  mankind  ought  to  feel 
the  responsibility  toward  the  posterity  which  they  are  preparing 
to  procreate  and  they  ought  to  lead  a  life  that  is  hygienic,  sober, 
virtuous,  and  serene,  such  as  is  calculated  to  preserve  intact  the 
treasures  of  the  immortality  of  the  species.  There  exist  whole 
families  of  degenerates,  whose  offspring  are  precondemned  to 
swell  the  ranks  of  moral  monsters.  These  individuals,  who 
result  from  a  wrongful  conception,  carry  within  them  malformations 
of  the  kind  known  as  degenerative,  and  together  with  them 
alterations  of  the  moral  sense  that  are  characteristic  of  degen- 
erates, that  is  to  say,  they  will  be  unbalanced  (through  inheritance) 
in  their  entire  personality. 

Something  similar  will  happen  if  such  a  lesion  befalls  the 
embryo,  i.e.,  while  the  individual  is  still  in  the  potential  state 
(lacking  human  form).  In  the  foetus,  on  the  contrary,  i.e.,  the 
individual  who  has  attained  the  human  form  but  is  still  in  the 
course  of  intrauterine  development,  any  possible  lesion,  and  more 
especially  those  due  to  pathological  causes,  while  they  cannot 
alter  the  entire  personality,  may  injure  that  which  is  already 
formed,  and  in  so  violent  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  physical 
monster,  whose  deformities  may  even  be  incompatible  with  life 
(e.g.,  cleft  spine  or  palate,  hydrocephaly,  Little's  disease,  which 
is  a  form  of  paralysis  of  foetal  origin,  and  all  the  teratological 
(i.e.,  monstrous)  alterations).  That  is  to  say,  in  going  from 
A  to  C  we  pass  from  malformations  to  deformations;  from  simple 
physical  alterations  of  an  sesthetic  nature  to  physical  monstrosities 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  357 

sometimes  incompatible  with  life  itself;  while  in  regard  to  the 
psychic  life,  we  find  that  the  remoter  lesions  (in  A)  result  for  the 
most  part  in  anomalies  of  the  moral  sense,  while  those  occurring 
later  (B,  C)  result  for  the  most  part  in  anomalies  of  the  intellect. 
So  that  at  one  extreme  we  may  have  moral  monsters,  with  mal- 
formations whose  significance  can  be  revealed  only  through 
observation  guided  by  science  and  at  the  other  extreme,  physical 
monsters,  whose  moral  sense  is  altered  only  slightly  or  not  at  all. 
Those  who  suffer  injury  at  A  may  be  intelligent,  and  employ 
their  intelligence  to  the  malevolent  ends  inspired  by  moral  madness; 
those  who  suffer  injury  at  C  or  D  are  harmless  monsters,  often 
idiots,  or  even  foredoomed  to  die.  The  peril  to  society  steadily 
diminishes  from  A  to  C,  while  the  peril  to  the  individual  steadily 
augments. 

Over  all  these  periods  so  full  of  peril  to  human  development 
and  so  highly  important  for  the  future  of  the  species,  we  may 
place  one  single  word: 

Woman. — Throughout  the  period  that  is  most  decisive  for  its 
future,  humanity  is  wholly  dependent  upon  woman.  Upon  her 
rests  not  only  the  responsibility  of  preserving  the  integrity  of  the 
germ,  but  also  that  of  the  embryonal  and  foetal  development  of 
man. 

The  respect  and  protection  of  woman  and  of  maternity  should 
be  raised  to  the  position  of  an  inalienable  social  duty  and  should 
become  one  of  the  principles  of  human  morality. 

To-day  we  are  altogether  lacking  in  a  sense  of  moral  obligation 
toward  the  species,  and  hence  lacking  in  a  moral  sense  such  as 
would  lead  to  respect  for  woman  and  maternity — so  much  so, 
indeed,  that  we  have  invented  a  form  of  modesty  which  consists  in 
concealing  maternity,  in  not  speaking  of  maternity!  And  yet  at 
the  same  time  there  are  sins  against  the  species  that  go  unpun- 
ished, and  offenses  to  the  dignity  of  woman  that  are  tolerated  and 
protected  by  law! 

But  even  after  the  child  is  born  and  has  reached  the  period  of 
lactation,  we  should  still  write  across  it  the  words  Woman  and 
Mother.  The  education  and  the  responsibility  of  woman  and  of 
society  must  be  modified,  if  we  are  to  assure  the  triumph  of  the 
species.  And  the  teachers  who  receive  the  child  into  the  school, 
after  its  transit  through  society  (in  the  form  of  its  parents'  germs) 
and  through  the  mother,  cannot  fail  to  be  interested  in  raising 


358 

the  social  standards  of  education  and  morality.  Like  a  priesthood 
of  the  new  humanity,  they  should  feel  it  their  duty  to  be  practi- 
tioners of  all  those  virtues  which  assure  the  survival  of  the  human 
species. 

Moral  and  Pedagogic  Problems  within  the  School. — Children 
when  they  first  come  to  school  have  a  personality  already  out- 
lined. From  the  unmoral,  the  sickly,  the  intellectually  defective 
to  the  robust  and  healthy  children,  the  intelligent,  and  those 
in  whom  are  hidden  the  glorious  germs  of  genius;  from  those 
who  sigh  over  the  discomforts  of  wretchedness  and  poverty  to 
those  who  thoughtlessly  enjoy  the  luxuries  of  life;  from  the  lonely 
hearted  orphan  to  the  child  pampered  by  the  jealous  love  of 
mother  and  grandmother: — they  all  meet  together  in  the  same 
school. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  neither  the  spark  of  genius  nor  the  black- 
ness of  crime  originated  in  the  school  or  in  the  pedagogic  method! 
More  than  that,  it  is  exceedingly  probable  that  the  extreme  oppo- 
site types  passed  unnoticed,  or  nearly  so,  in  that  environment  whose 
duty  it  is  to  prepare  the  new  generations  for  social  adaptation. 
From  this  degree  of  blindness  and  unconsciousness  the  school  will 
certainly  be  rescued  by  means  of  the  scientific  trend  which 
pedagogy  is  to-day  acquiring  through  the  study  of  the  pupil.  That 
the  teacher  must  assume  the  new  task  of  repairing  what  is  wrong 
with  the  child,  through  the  aid  of  the  physician,  and  of  protecting 
the  normal  child  from  the  dangers  of  enfeeblement  and  deforma- 
tion that  constantly  overhang  him,  thus  laying  the  foundations 
for  a  splendid  human  race,  free  to  attain  its  foreordained  develop- 
ment— all  this  we  have  already  pointed  out,  and  space  does  not 
permit  us  to  expand  the  argument  further. 

But,  in  conclusion,  there  is  one  more  point  over  which  I  wish 
to  pause.  If  the  Lombrosian  theory  rests  upon  a  basis  of  truth, 
what  attitude  should  we  pedagogists  take  on  the  question  of  moral 
education?  We  are  impotent  in  the  face  of  the  fact  of  the  interre- 
lation between  physical  and  moral  deformity.  Is  it  then  no  longer 
a  sin  to  do  evil  and  no  longer  a  merit  to  do  good?  No.  But  we 
have  only  to  alter  the  interpretation  of  the  facts,  and  the  result  is  a 
high  moral  progress  pointing  a  new  path  in  pedagogy.  There  are, 
for  example,  certain  individuals  who  feel  themselves  irresistibly 
attracted  toward  evil,  who  become  inebriated  with  blood;  there 
are  others,  on  the  contrary,  who  faint  at  the  mere  sight  of  blood 


THE  SKIN  AND  THE  PIGMENTS  359 

and  have  a  horror  of  evil.  There  are  some  who  feel  themselves 
naturally  impelled  to  do  good,  and  they  do  it  in  order  to  satisfy  a 
personal  desire  (many  philanthropists)  thus  deriving  that  pleasure 
which  springs  from  the  satisfaction  of  any  natural  need.  In  our 
eyes,  all  these  individuals  who  act  instinctively,  though  in  opposite 
ways,  deserve  neither  praise  nor  blame;  they  were  born  that  way; 
one  of  them  is  physiologically  a  proletarian,  the  other  is  a  capitalist 
of  normal  human  ability.  It  is  a  question  of  birth.  When  the 
educator  praised  the  one  and  punished  the  other,  he  was  sanction- 
ing the  necessary  effects  of  causes  that  were  unknown  to  him : 

"But  still,  whence  cometh  the  intelligence 
Of  the  first  notions  man  is  ignorant, 
And  the  affection  of  the  first  allurements 
Which  are  in  you  as  instinct  in  the  bee 
To  make  its  honey;  and  this  first  desire 
Merit  of  praise  or  blame  containeth  not." 

(DANTE,  Longfellow's  Translation.) 

The  instinctive  malefactor  is  not  to  blame,  the  blame  should 
rest  rather  upon  his  parents  who  gave  him  a  bad  heredity;  but 
these  parents  were  in  their  turn  victims  of  the  social  causes  of  degen- 
eration. The  same  thing  may  be  said  if  a  pathological  cause  comes 
up  for  consideration  in  relation,  for  instance,  to  certain  anomalies 
of  character. 

Analogously,  he  who  is  born  good  and  instinctively  does  good 
deeds,  deriving  pleasure  from  them,  deserves  no  praise.  There  is 
no  vainer  sight  than  is  afforded  by  a  person  of  this  sort,  living  com- 
placently in  the  contemplation  of  himself,  praised  by  everyone,  and 
to  all  practical  intent,  held  up  as  a  contrast  to  the  evil  actions  of 
the  degenerate  and  the  diseased  who  act  from  instinct  no  more  nor 
less  than  he  does  himself.  The  man  who  is  born  physiologically 
a  capitalist  assumes  high  moral  obligations;  he  ought  to  discipline 
his  nature  as  a  normal  man  in  order  to  make  it  serve  the  general 
good.  And  this  is  not  to  be  accomplished  through  an  instinct 
to  do  good,  which  acts  at  haphazard,  but  through  the  deliberate 
will  to  do  good,  even  if  the  requisite  actions  bring  no  immediate 
satisfaction,  but  even  involve  a  sacrifice.  Society  will  be  amelio- 
rated and  rendered  moral  through  the  harmonious  efforts  of  good 
men,  trained  for  the  social  welfare.  Man  will  become  good  only 
when  his  goodness  costs  him  a  voluntary  effort. 

Hence  it  will  be  necessary  not  to  limit  ourselves,  as  has  been 


360  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

done  in  the  past,  to  admiring  the  man  who  is  born  good,  but  to 
educate  him  so  as  to  render  him  thoughtful,  strong  and  useful; 
not  to  condemn  the  sinner,  but  to  redeem  him  through  education 
and  through  a  sense  of  fellowship  in  the  common  fault,  which  is 
the  scientific  form  of  pardon.  The  degenerate,  who  succeeds  in 
conquering  his  sinful  instinct  and  in  ceasing  to  do  harm,  the  normal 
man  who  renders  himself  morally  sublime  by  dedicating  his  splen- 
did physiological  inheritance  to  the  collective  good,  will  be 
equally  meritorious.  But  what  a  moral  abyss  gapes  open  to  divide 
them!  Because  it  is  a  short  stride  at  best  that  the  physiological 
proletariat  can  take,  while  for  the  soul  of  the  normal  man  an  un- 
trammelled pathway  lies  open  toward  perfection. 

Accordingly  the  new  task  of  the  teacher  of  the  future  is  a 
multifold  one.  He  is  the  artificer  of  human  beauty,  the  new 
modeler  of  created  things,  just  as  the  sublime  chisel  of  Greek  art 
was  the  modeler  of  marbles.  And  he  prepares  for  greater  utili- 
sation the  physiological  and  intellectual  forces  of  the  new  man, 
like  a  Greek  deity  scattering  broadcast  his  prolific  riches. 

But  above  all  he  prepares  the  souls  for  the  sublime  sentiment 
which  awaits  the  humanity  of  the  future,  glorying  in  the  attain- 
ment of  peace,  and  then  indeed  he  becomes  almost  a  redeemer  of 
mankind. 


CHAPTER  VII 

TECHNICAL  PART 

IN  a  book  the  technical  part  can  serve  only  to  point  the  way," 
because  the  acquirement  of  technique  demands  practical  experience. 

The  technique  of  anthropology  consists,  essentially,  of  two 
principal  branches:  1.  the  gathering  of  anthropological  data  by 
means  of  measurements  (anthropometry)  and  by  inspection  (an- 
throposcopy) ;  2.  the  formulation  of  laws  based  on  these  anthro- 
pological data. 

Anthropometry  requires  a  knowledge:  a.  of  anthropometric 
instruments;  b.  of  the  anatomical  points  of  contact  to  which  the 
instruments  must  be  applied. 

For  beginners  it  will  be  found  helpful  to  mark  upon  the  subject 
the  anthropometric  points  of  contact  by  means  of  a  dermographic 
pencil. 

In  anthropology  so  large  a  number  of  measurements  are  taken, 
both  from  life  and  from  skeletons,  that  a  minute  description  of  them 
all  would  demand  a  separate  treatise.  We  shall  limit  ourselves 
to  indicating  such  measurements  as  it  has  been  found  of  practical 
utility  to  take  in  school. 

THE  FORM 

In  the  theoretic  part  of  this  work  we  emphasized  the  word 
form,  representing  the  body  as  a  whole  and  embodying  the  con- 
ception of  relationship  between  the  proportions  of  the  body, 
tending  to  determine  the  morphological  individuality. 

From  the  normal  point  of  view  the  two  individualities  which 
are  most  interesting  and  worthy  of  comparison  are  those  of  the 
new-born  child  and  the  adult  (see  Fig.  140  and  its  eloquent  testi- 
mony). In  these  two  individualities  the  greatest  possible  promi- 
nence is  given  to  those  differences  of  proportion  between  bust 
and  limb  on  which  all  the  various  measurements  of  the  form  de- 
pend :  the  standing  and  sitting  stature;  the  total  spread  of  the  arms; 
the  weight;  the  circumference  of  the  thorax  (see  "  Theoretic  Lessons 
on  the  Form").  With  the  theory  recalled  to  mind  we  may  now 

361 


362 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


pass  on  to  the  practical  procedure  for  obtaining  these  various 
measures.  Among  them  the  most  important  is  the  stature,  whose 
cycle  is  represented  in  Fig.  141.  The  theoretic  section  of  this 
book  devotes  special  attention  to  the  stature  in  a  separate  chapter 
following  that  on  the  Form.  It  is  well  to  have  in  mind  the  gen- 
eral principals  before  taking  up  the  technique  of  the  separate 
measurements. 

Stature. — The  .stature  is  the  distance  intervening  between  the 
plane  on  which  the  individual  stands  in  an  erect  position  and  the 
top  of  his  head. 

Technical  Procedure. — It  is  necessary  to  know  how  to  place 
the  subject  in  an  erect  position,  heels  together  and  toes  turned 


FIG.  140. — New-born  child  and  adult  man  reduced  to  the  same  height  and  preserving 
their  relative  bodily  proportions.  The  head  of  the  new-born  child  is  twice  the  height  of 
that  of  the  adult  and  extends  downward  to  the  level  of  the  latters's  nipples.  The  pubes 
of  the  adult  correspond  to  the  navel  of  the  new-born  child;  and  the  pubes  of  the  child  to 
the  middle  of  the  adult's  thigh. 

out,  shoulders  square,  arms  pendent,  head  orientated,  i.e.,  occip- 
ital point  touching  the  wall,  gaze  horizontal). 

In  measuring  the  individual  stature  it  is  customary  to  use  an 
instrument  called  an  anthropometer  (Fig.  142). 

It  consists  of  a  horizontal  board  on  which  the  subject  stands, 


TECHNICAL  PART 


363 


a  stationary  vertical  rod  marked  with  the  metric  scale  against 
which  the  subject  rests  his  back,  and  another  small  movable  rod 
perpendicular  to  the  first  and  projecting  forward  from  it;  this  is 


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Flo.  141. — Diagram  representing  the  cycle  of  stature  of  man  (unbroken  line)  and  woman 
(dotted  line),  from  birth  to  the  end  of  life. 

lowered  until  it  is  tangent  to  the  apex  of  the  cranium;  and  the 
scale  upon  the  upright  rod  gives  the  number  corresponding  to 
the  stature. 

Certain  anthropologists  are  now  trying  to  perfect  the  anthro- 


364 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


pometer  (Mosso's  school).  And,  indeed,  how  is  it  possible  to 
bring  the  entire  person  posteriorly  in  contact  with  the  vertical 
rod  of  the  anthropometer?  The  rod  is  straight  while  the  body 
follows  the  curves  of  the  vertebral  column  and  the  gluteus  muscles. 
Accordingly,  Professor  Monti,  an  assistant  to  Professor  Mosso, 
has  proposed  a  new  anthropometer  which,  in  place  of  the  single 
rod  at  the  back,  has  a  pair  of  rods,  so  that  the  more  prominent 

portions  of  the  body  may  occupy  the 
intermediate  space;  a  similiar  anthropom- 
eter was  already  in  use  for  measuring 
kyphotics. 

At  the  present  day  there  are  exceedingly 
complicated  and  accurate  anthropometers 
which  comprise,  in  addition,  instruments  for 
obtaining  various  other  measurements,  such 
as  the  thoracic  and  cephalic  perimeters,  etc. 
But  these  are  very  costly  and  not  practical 
for  use  in  schools.  Their  use  is  confined 


FIG.  142. — Anthropometer. 


FIG.  143. — A  square. 


chiefly  to  medical  clinics,  as,  for  example,  Viola's  anthropometer, 
which  is  used  in  Professor  De  Giovanni's  clinic. 

Broca  recommends  to  travelers  an  anthropometer  consist- 
ing of  a  graduated  rod  with  a  movable  index  attached.  By  means 
of  this  a  series  of  distances  from  the  ground  can  be  measured, 
and  consequently  various  partial  heights  of  the  body,  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  the  head,  from  the  ground  to  the  chin,  to 
the  pubis,  to  the  knee,  etc.,  but  grave  errors  may  be  committed 
and  its  use  is  not  advisable  so  long  as  we  have  within  reach  a 
universal  anthropometer. 

The  universal  anthropometer  consists  essentially  of  two  planes 


TECHNICAL  PART  365 

perpendicular  to  each  other;  now  we  may  say  that  in  every  room, 
in  the  meeting  of  two  planes,  the  floor  and  the  wall,  we  have  an 
anthropometer.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  make 
use  of  this  simple  means!  Placing  the  child  in  an  erect  position 
with  the  body  touching  the  wall  throughout  its  whole  length,  we 
place  a  perfectly  horizontal  rod  tangent  to  the  top  of  the  head, 
we  make  a  mark  upon  the  wall,  and  then  with  a  millimetric 
measure  we  take  the  distance  between  the  mark  and  the  floor, 
and  this  gives  us  the  stature.  Two  difficulties  are  met  with, 
first,  that  of  holding  the  rod  horizontally  on  the  top  of  the  head, 
and  secondly,  that  of  measuring  the  distance  in  a -perfectly  verti- 
cal line.  In  the  first  difficulty  a  carpenter's  square  may  help  us 
or,  if  there  is  a  school  of  manual  training  within  convenient 
reach  k  is  easy  to  have  a  little  instrument  constructed  (Fig.  143) 
consisting  of  two  planes  perpendicular  to  each  other,  one  of  which 
should  be  held  tangent  to  the  head  while  the  other  is  pressed 
against  the  wall  (carpenter's  square). 

As  regards  the  vertical  measurement,  a  plumb  line  may  be 
used,  but  it  is  more  practical  to  trace  upon  the  wall  that  we  mean 
to  use  for  such  measurements,  a  design  consisting  of  a  vertical 
line  on  which  a  mark  may  be  made  at  the  height  of  one  metre 
from  the  floor  in  order  to  simplify  the  task  of  measuring. 

It  is  better  if  the  millimetric  tape  is  made  of  metal,  so  that 
it  will  not  vary  in  length;  but  even  a  tailor's  measure  of  waxed 
tape  may  answer  the  purpose'  if  it  is  new  and  has  been  tested 
with  a  metallic  measure  or  an  accurate  metre  rule. 

The  height  of  the  stature  is  taken  without  the  shoes,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  state  at  what  hour  of  the  day  the  measurement  is 
made,  because  in  the  morning  we  are  taller  (though  by  only  a 
few  millimetres)  than  we  are  in  the  evening.  The  stature  may 
also  be  taken  in  a  recumbent  position  (length  of  body),  and  in 
this  case  will  be  longer  by  about  one  centimetre. 

Consequently  in  giving  the  measure  of  stature  it  is  necessary 
to  state  in  what  position  the  subject  was  placed,  by  what  method 
the  measurement  was  taken  (whether  with  an  anthropometer  or 
not)  and  at  what  hour  of  the  day  the  measurement  was  made. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  the  subject  was  required  to 
remove  his  shoes,  since  that  is  taken  for  granted. 

Sitting  Stature. — Besides  the  stature  taken  on  foot,  the  sitting 
stature  (height  of  bust)  is  also  taken  by  an  analogous  process. 

24 


366 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


It  is  the  distance  between  the  plane  on  which  the  individual  is 
seated  and  the  vertex  of  his  head.  The  subject  should  be  seated 
upon  a  wooden  bench  having  a  horizontal  plane  and  should  place 
his  back  in  contact  with  the  wall;  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  pre- 
ceding measure  the  shoes  had  to  be  removed,  in  the  present  case 
the  clothing  is  discarded,  leaving  only  the  light  underwear  (Fig. 
144).  With  the  aid  of  the  square  we  find  the  point  correspond- 
ing to  the  vertex  of  the  head  and  with  the  millimetric  measure 

we  obtain  the  distance 
°  on  the  wall  between  this 
point  and  the  plane  of 
the  bench. 

Index  of  Stature. — We 
know  that  these  two 
measures  are  extremely 
important  for  ascertain- 
ing the  type  of  stature, 
i.e.,  macroscelia  and 
brachyscelia,  determined 
by  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  sitting  stature 
and  the  total  stature  re- 
duced to  a  scale  of  100, 
that  is,  the  relation  of  the  bust  to  the  total  height  of  the  individual. 
Let  us  remember  in  this  connection  that  the  bust  should  be  a  52d 
or  53d  part  of  the  total  stature  and  that  below  52  down  to  50,  it 
is  macroscelous,  and  that  above  53,  up  to  55,  it  is  brachyscelous. 
Having  obtained  the  two  numbers  corresponding  to  the  two 
statures,  e.g.,  stature  1.60  m.,  bust  0.85  m.,  how  are  we  to  find 
out  the  percentual  relation  between  the  two  measurements? 
First,  we  form  an  equation:  85:  160  =  x  :  100. 


FIG.  144.— (1)  Sitting  stature.      (2)  Standing  stature. 
(Method  of  taking  measurements  with  the 
Anthropometer.) 


from  which  we  obtain  x  = 


100X85 
160 


=  53 


This  stature  is  of  the  normal  average  type,  that  is,  it  is  mesa- 
tiscelous;  but  the  mesatiscelia  is  high  (in  comparison  with  the 
other  measurement  that  is  also  mesatiscelous,  namely,  52),  in 
other  words,  it  is  brachy-mesatiscelous. 

Note  the  formula  which  gives  us  the  value  of  x.  If  we  substi- 
tute general  symbols  in  place  of  the  concrete  values,  we  may  say 


TECHNICAL  PART 


367 


that  x  is  equal  to  one  hundred  times  the  lesser  measurement  (m) 
divided  by  the  greater  measurement  (M).  If,  in  place  of  x,  we 
substitute  /,  signifying  index,  we  may  draw  up  the  following 
general  formula  of  indices: 


7  = 


IQOXw 
M 


This  formula  of  relations  between  measurements  is  of  wide 
application  in  anthropology  and  is  fundamental.  Indices  of 
every  measurement  are  sought  for.  The  one  given  above  is  the 
index  of  stature,  and  it  determines  the  type  of  stature.  All  the 
other  indices  are  calculated  by  similiar  procedure. 

Total  Spread  of  the  Arms. — This 
measurement  is  taken  quite  simply. 
The  subject  must  place  himself  with 
his  arms  outstretched  in  a  horizon- 
tal direction  and  on  a  level  with  his 
shoulders.  The  measurement  cor- 
responds to  the  distance  interven- 
ing in  a  horizontal  line  from  the  tip 
of  one  middle  finger  to  the  other 
(Fig.  145).  A  specially  constructed 
anthropometer  may  be  used  for  this 
measurement.  It  has  a  long  hori- 
zontal rod  adjustable  perpendicu- 
larly, so  that  it  may  be  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  shoulders  of  the  sub- 
ject to  be  measured.  This  rod  forms  a  cross  with  the  other 
vertical  rod  with  which  the  subject  should  be  in  contact.  The 
arms  are  then  extended  along  the  cross  rod  which  is  marked 
with  a  millimetric  scale.  But  this  greatly  complicates  the  anthro- 
pometer, and  hardly  any  anthropometer  possesses  this  attachment. 
This  measure  may  be  successfully  taken  with  the  very  simple  aid 
of  the  wall.  The  only  difficulty  offered  is  that  of  securing  a  per- 
fectly horizontal  position  for  the  arms.  For  this  purpose  horizontal 
lines,  which  either  happen  by  chance  to  be  upon  the  wall  or  which 
may  be  drawn  on  purpose,  will  be  of  assistance.  In  order  to  have 
guiding  lines  suited  to  different  statures,  several  horizontal  lines 
may  be  drawn  intersecting  the  vertical  line  already  traced  for 
guidance  of  the  millimetric  tape  measure  used  in  taking  the  stature. 


FIG.   145. — Method  of  measuring  the 
total  spread  of  arms. 


368  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Thoracic  Perimeter.  —  The  thoracic  perimeter  is  taken  on  the 
nude  thorax,  in  an  erect  position  and  with  the  arms  hanging 
beside  the  bust,  by  applying  the  millimetric  measure  in  such  a 
way  that  its  upper  margin  passes  just  below  the  nipples.  The  tape 
measure  should  completely  encircle  the  thorax  in  a  horizontal 
plane  passing  through  the  mammary  papillae.  Since  the  thorax 
is  in  constant  motion,  we  must  observe  the  oscillations  of  the  tape 
measure  and  obtain  the  average;  or  else  we  may  take  the  measure- 
ments during  the  state  of  expiration  (repose).  In  giving  the  figure 
it  is  necessary  to  specify  the  procedure  followed. 

Vital  Index.     Index  of  Life.  —  Index  of  life  is  the  name  given  to  the 
proportion  between  the  stature  and  the  thoracic  perimeter.     It 

ought  to  be  equal  to  50,  i.  e.,  Tp  = 


=  W  (normal). 

Weight.  —  The  weight  of  an  individual  is  taken  by  means  of 
ordinary  scales.  In  order  to  obtain  the  weight  of  the  nude  person, 
the  clothing  may  be  weighed  separately  and  their  weight  sub- 
tracted from  the  total  weight  of  the  clothed  person.  The  weight 
should  be  taken  before  eating,  in  order  that  unassimilated  alimen- 
tary substances  may  not  alter  the  real  weight  of  the  subject.  If 
this  method  cannot  be  rigorously  followed  out,  it  should  be  speci- 
fied how  much  clothing  the  subject  retained,  whether  he  had 
eaten,  etc. 

Ponderal  Index.  —  Stature  and  weight  are  the  most  synthetic 
and  comprehensive  measurements  of  the  form.  But  we  need  a 
clear  proportion  between  these  two  measures  to  tell  us  whether  an 
individual  weighs  more  or  less  relatively  to  his  stature.  It  may 
happen,  for  instance,  that  a  stout  person  of  short  stature  actually 
weighs  less  than  another  person  who  is  tall  and  thin;  but  relatively 
to  his  stature  he  may  on  the  contrary  be  heavier,  that  is,  he  may 
have  a  higher  ponderal  index.  A  robust  and  plump  child  will 
weigh  in  an  absolute  sense  less  than  an  adult  who  is  extremely 
thin  and  emaciated;  but  relatively  to  the  mass  of  his  body  he 
weighs  more.  Now  this  relative  weight  or  index  of  weight 
(ponderal  index)  gives  us  precisely  this  idea  of  embonpoint,  of  the 
more  or  less  flourishing  state  of  nutrition  in  which  an  individual 
happens  to  be.  But  linear  measurements  such  as  the  stature 


TECHNICAL  PART  369 

cannot  be  compared  with  volumetric  measurements,  such  as  the 
weight.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  volumetric  measure— 
the  weight  —  to  a  linear  measure,  which  is  done  by  extracting  the 
cube  root  from  the  number  representing  the  weight.  Then  the 
root  of  the  weight  may  be  compared  to  the  stature  reduced  to  a 
scale  of  100.  By  forming  a  general  proportion,  in  which  W  repre- 
sents the  weight  of  a  given  individual,  and  S  the  corresponding^ 
figure  of  his  stature,  we  obtain: 


S  :  ^W  ::  100  :  x  (where  x  represents  the  ponderal  index) 
hence  Pi  =  —  ** 

i3 

The  application  of  this  formula  would  necessitate  some  rather 
complicated  calculations,  which  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  have 
to  repeat  for  a  large  number  of  subjects. 

But  there  are  tables  of  calculations  already  compiled,  which  are 
due  to  Livi,  and  which  are  given,  together  with  other  tables,  in 
Livi's  own  work,  Anthropometry  (Hoepli).  These  are  numerical 
tables,  to  be  read  in  the  same  manner  as  tables  of  logarithms. 
At  the  top,  in  a  horizontal  direction,  the  stature  is  given  in  centi- 
metres, while  in  the  vertical  column  the  weight  is  given  in  kilo- 
grams. The  calculation  of  all  the  ponderal  indices  has  been 
worked  out,  in  relation  to  every  possible  stature  and  weight.  If 
we  look  up  the  ponderal  index  corresponding  to  the  figures  already 
cited  in  illustration  (see  p.  182),  we  find  that  for  the  adult  the 
Pi  =  23.6,  and  for  the  child  the  Pi  =  27A'}  i.e.,  considered  relatively 
the  child  weighs  more  in  the  given  case.  This  is  the  true  and  ac- 
curate technical  method  of  finding  the  relative  proportion  between 
weight  and  stature. 

Accordingly,  we  have  now  learned  to  take  all  the  measurements 
relative  to  the  form,  to  calculate  from  them  the  more  important 
indices  (or  proportions),  such  as  the  index  of  stature,  the  index 
of  life,  and  the  ponderal  index.  We  have  also  learned  to  under- 
stand and  to  consult  the  tables  of  anthropological  calculations. 

THE  CRANIUM 

The  Head  and  Cranium.  —  Let  us  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  the 
word  head  is  used  in  speaking  of  a  living  person,  and  cranium,  of  a 
skeleton. 


370  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  science  which  makes  a  study  of  the  cranium  is  called 
craniology.  The  cranium  and  the  head  may  be  studied  either  by 
observing  the  external  form — cranioscopy  or  cephaloscopy;  or  else 
by  taking  measurements — craniometry  or  cephalometry.  Crani- 
ology makes  use  equally  of  cranioscopy  and  of  craniometry:  in  fact, 
if  cranioscopy  alone  were  used,  certain  anomalies  might  escape 
attention,  because  we  can  recognise  them  only  by  measuring  the 
head;  and  conversely,  if  we  confined  ourselves  to  craniometric 
researches,  we  might  miss  certain  anomalies  of  form,  which  we 
become  aware  of  only  by  attentively  observing  the  cranium. 
Frequently  craniometry  serves  to  verify  cranioscopy.  For  ex- 
ample, a  cranium  may  appear  to  the  eye  too  large  or  too  small, 
but  certainly  if  we  measure  the  cranial  circumference  with  a  tape- 
measure  we  shall  have  an  accurate  decision  of  a  case  which  may  well 
be  a  simple  optical  illusion.  Indeed,  we  all  know  how  easy  it  is 
to  give  an  erroneous  judgment,  relying  only  on  our  senses;  for  the 
personal  equation  enters  very  largely  into  judgments  of  this  sort. 
For  instance,  a  person  of  low  stature  easily  judges  that  other  men 
are  tall,  and  vice  versa.  To  the  eye  of  the  Italian  or  the  Frenchman, 
the  hair  of  young  English  girls  is  a  pale  blond;  to  the  Scandinavians 
of  the  North  it  is  a  warm  blond.  If  two  men  possessed  of  different 
aesthetic  tastes  and  in  different  frames  of  mind  wish  to  describe 
one  and  the  same  garden  they  will  give  two  widely  different 
descriptions  which  will  reveal  far  more  of  their  individual  impres- 
sions and  moods  than  of  the  actual  characteristics  of  the  gar- 
den described.  It  is  easy  to  understand  how  important  it  is  in 
scientific  descriptions  to  exclude  completely  the  influence  of  the 
observer's  personality.  In  the  cranioscopic  study  of  a  cranium, 
for  instance,  the  precise  characteristics  of  that  cranium  are  what 
must  be  found  and  nothing  else  whatever,  no  matter  who  the 
student  is  nor  in  what  part  of  the  world  he  is  working.  But  in 
order  to  achieve  this  result  it  is  not  enough  to  take  observations; 
it  is  also  necessary  to  know  how  to  observe,  and  in  observing  to 
follow  a  scientific  method. 

Cranioscopy. — Cranioscopic  methods  require  that  the  skull 
shall  be  observed  from  several  sides.  Blumenbach,  who  studied 
crania  by  observing  them  from  the  vertex,  divided  them  into 
ovoid,  rhomboid,  etc.,  while  Camper,  on  the  other  hand,  study- 
ing them  in  profile,  classified  them  as  flat,  elongated,  etc.,  and 
the  conclusions  of  the  two  scientists  were  irreconcilable. 


FIG.  146. — Facial  norm. 


FIG.  147. — Occipital  norm. 


FIG.  148. — Lateral  norm. 


TECHNICAL  PART  371 

The  cranium  must  be  observed  from  above,  from  the  front,  in 
profile  and  from  the  occipital  part;  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
observer's  glance  shall  fall  perpendicularly  upon  whichever  cranial 
side  is  under  observation.  Hence  it  is  said  that  the  observation  is 
made  according  to  the  norm,  i.e.,  according  to  the  perpendicular, 
and  there  are  four  norms  in  cranioscopy — vertical,  frontal,  lateral, 
and  occipital.  In  this  way  we  may  be  sure  that  no  anomaly  of 
form  will  escape  the  eye. 

There  are  innumerable  anomalies  of  form.  We  will  indicate 
only  the  principal  ones.  In  order  to  detect  all  the  anomalies  that 
may  occur  in  a  cranium  it  is  necessary  to  observe  it  according  to 
all  the  norms,  each  one  of  which  may  reveal  a  different  set  of 
anomalies. 

A.  Vertical  Norm. — The  word  norm,  as  we  have  already  said, 
has  here  the  signification  of  perpendicular.  To  look  at  a  cranium 
according  to  the  vertical  norm  means  to  let  our  glance  fall  per- 
pendicularly upon  the  vertex  of  the  cranium.  We  may  do  this  in 
one  of  two  ways,  either  by  raising  our  head  above  that  of  the 
subject  of  inspection,  in  such  a  way  that  our  glance  falls  vertically 
upon  it,  or  by  bending  back  the  head  of  the  person  to  be  observed 
until  the  crown  of  his  head  becomes  perpendicular  to  our  gaze. 
This  norm  is  taken  by  placing  oneself  behind  the  person  to  be 
observed,  who,  if  an  adult,  should  be  seated  while  the  observer 
remains  standing;  and  by  taking  the  head  to  be  examined  between 
the  two  hands  in  such  a  way  that  the  extended  thumbs  and  index- 
fingers  form  a  horizontal  circlet  around  the  cranial  walls. 

This  is  the  most  important  of  the  norms,  not  only  because  it 
reveals  the  most  important  normal  forms  already  described  in 
the  text,  but  also  the  greater  number  of  anomalies  such  as  are 
indicated  below. 

1.  Crania  with  Rectilinear  Perimeter. — It  may  happen  that  the  line  bound- 
ing the  cranial  vault  is  not  curved  but  formed  of  broken  straight  lines  from  which 
various  geometrical  figures  result,  producing  crania  known  as  trigonocephalic, 
pentagonoid,  parallelopepidoid,  etc. 

The  most  important  among  these  and  among  all  the  abnormal  forms  is  the 
trigonocephalic  cranium,  having  the  base  of  the  triangle  toward  the  occiput  and 
the  vertex  toward  the  forehead.  The  result  of  such  formation  is  that  the  frontal 
region  is  restricted,  a  circumstance  of  obvious  gravity.  The  infantile  cranium 
is  normally  pentagonoid;  the  persistence  of  this  form  in  the  adult  is  a  sign  of 
arrested  development,  but  not  serious.  Sergi  does  not  admit  this  form  among 
the  anomalies  when  the  nodules  are  but  slightly  emphasised. 


372  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

2.  Asymmetrical  and  Plagiocephalic  Crania. — The  sagittal  plane  divides 
the  cranium  into  two  unequal  halves.     The  asymmetry  may  be  either  frontal,  in 
which  case  one  frontal  nodule  is  more  prominent  than  the  other — anterior  plagio- 
cephaly,  or  else  parietal,  in  which  case  one  of  the  parietal  nodules  is  more  promi- 
nent than  the  other — posterior  plagiocephaly. 

These  are  the  two  forms  of  simple  plagiocephaly.  It  may  happen  that  there 
is  simultaneously  an  anterior  and  posterior  asymmetry,  and  in  such  a  case  it 
generally  happens  that  if  the  more  prominent  frontal  nodule  is  on  the  right,  the 
more  prominent  parietal  nodule  is  on  the  left,  so  that  the  two  more  prominent 
nodules  correspond  in  a  diagonal  sense.  This  is  compound  plagiocephaly. 

Plagiocephaly  is  extremely  common;  if  very  apparent,  it  constitutes  a  grave 
defect,  but  not  if  only  slight.  For  that  matter,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a 
cranium  rigorously  symmetrical,  even  among  normal  persons. 

3.  Crania  with  curved  and  symmetrical  lines,  but  in  which  the  perimeter 
consists  not  of  a  single  ellipsoidal  curve,  but  of  two  curves. 

a.  Clinocephalic  Cranium. — The  coronal  suture  has  a  girdle-like  furrow, 
in  such  fashion  that  there  result  an  anterior  and  a  posterior  curve  which  to- 
gether form  a  sort  of  figure  8.     This  anomaly  may  be  perceived  also  from  the 
lateral  norm. 

b.  Cymbocephalic  Cranium. — There  is  a  girdle-like  furrow  along  the 
sagittal  line,  so  that  the  cranium  has  the  appearance  of  being  divided  into  two 
pockets,  one  on  the  right  hand  and  the  other  on  the  left. 

B.  Lateral  Norm. — The  observer  must  stand  at  the  side  of  the 
subject  to  be  observed  and  look  at  him  perpendicularly  to  the 
profile. 

We  remain  standing  while  we  look  if  the  subject  is  an  adult 
and  is  standing  up,  but  we  sit  down  if  the  subject  is  a  child  and  is 
standing;  and  we  determine  the  vertical  position  by  moving  the 
subject's  head  as  the  occasion  requires. 

I  note,  as  seen  from  this  norm,  two  anomalies  in  which  the  ellipsoidal  uniform- 
ity outlining  the  profile  of  the  cranium  is  altered. 

a.  Oxycephalic  Cranium. — The  line  of  the  profile  is  noticeably  raised  at  the 
bregma,  from  which  the  anterior  part  of  the  cranium  continues  to  rise,  almost  in 
the  direction  of  the  forehead,  instead  of  curving  backward.     In  its  entirety  this 
anomalous  cranium  has  the  form  of  a  "sugar  loaf." 

b.  Acrocephalic  Cranium. — The  line  of  the  profile,  on  the  contrary,  is  not 
raised  until  near  the  lambda. 

C.  Occipital  Norm. — The  observer  places  himself  behind  the 
subject  and  gazes  perpendicularly  at  the  occipital  point. 

D.  Frontal  Norm. — The  observer  stands  in  front  of  the  sub- 
ject and  gazes  at  him  on  a  level  with  the  forehead. 

I  may  point  out  only  one  very  important  anomaly  seen  from  this  norm, 
a.  Scaphicephalic  Cranium. — The  lateral  parts  of  the  cranium  are  flattened 


TECHNICAL  PART  373 

to  such  a  degree  that  the  vault  is  extremely  narrow  along  the  sagittal  line  (see 
Figs.  51  and  52). 

Craniometry. — The  volume  of  the  cranium  is  of  high  importance 
because  it  bears  a  relation  to  that  of  the  brain.  In  the  studies 
which  have  been  made  relative  to  the  correspondence  between 
physical  and  intellectual  development,  the  measurement  of  the 
cranial  volume  comes  first  in  order. 

In  measuring  the  cranium  it  is  necessary  to  use: 

a.  the  millimetric  tape  measure,  b.  the  craniometric  calipers, 
c.  the  compass  with  sliding  branches,  d.  the  double  square.  In 
order  to  facilitate  the  task  of  measuring  and  to  secure  uniformity 
it  is  necessary  first  to  locate  the  craniometric  points  to  which  it 
will  be  necessary  to  apply  the  instrument.  These  craniometric 
points  are  easily  located  on  the  cranium,  where  a  great  number 
of  them  have  been  studied.  In  the  case  of  a  living  person,  on 
the  contrary,  these  points  are  reduced  to  a  small  number  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  accurately  locating  them. 

The  points  on  the  vault  of  the  cranium,  along  the  sagittal 
line,  are: 

1.  The   nasion   (point   of  union  of  the  nasal   and  frontal 
bones). 

2.  The  ophryon  (middle  point  of  the  line  tangent  to  the  two 
superciliary  arches,  a  line  corresponding  to  the  horizontal  drawn 
transversely  across  the  forehead  and  passing  through  the  two 
points  on  the  temporal  lines  which  are  nearest  to  the  median 
line.     This  point  lies  in  an  important  region  of  the  forehead, 
situated  between  the  two  eyebrows — the  glabella.     The  central 
point  of  the  middle  region  of  the  forehead  above  the  glabella  is 
called  the  metopiori). 

3.  The  bregma  (point  of  juncture  between  the  coronal  and 
sagittal  suture). 

4.  The  vertex. 

5.  The    lambda    (point   of   juncture   between  the    sagittal 
suture  and  the  occipital  or  lambdoid  suture). 

6.  The  occipital  point. 

7.  The  inion  (situated  at  a  level  midway  between  the  occip- 
ital point  and  the  occipital  foramen). 

Laterally  we  have  these  other  craniometric  points: 

1.  The  external  orbital  apophysis  (formed  from  the  frontal 
bone). 


374  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

2.  The  supra-auricular  point. 

3.  The  auricular  point  (corresponding  to  a  little  depression 
which  may  be  felt  just  below  the  tragus  and  in  correspondence 
with  the  zygomatic  arches). 

4.  The  minimum  frontal  point  (a  bony  angle  which  may  be 
felt  about  1  centimetre  above  the  external  orbital  apophysis,  along 
the  temporal  line). 

On  a  living  person  the  following  points  can  easily  be  located: 
Along  the  sagittal  line: 

1.  The  nasion. 

2.  The  ophryon. 

3.  The  vertex. 

4.  The  occipital  point. 
Laterally: 

1.  The  external  orbital  apophysis. 

2.  The  supra-auricular  point. 

3.  The  auricular  point. 

4.  The  minimum  frontal  point. 

Now,  with  these  points  as  guides  it  becomes  practical  to  meas- 
ure the  various  curves  and  diameters  of  the  cranium.  The  curves 
are  measured  by  means  of  the  millimetric  tape;  the  diameters  by 
means  of  the  calipers. 

There  are  various  curves;  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  con- 
sidering only  the  following: 

The  maximum  circumference,  which  is  obtained  by  passing 
the  tape  across  the  ophryon,  the  occipital  points  and  the  supra- 
auricular  points,  beginning  to  apply  it  at  the  ophryon.  Its  meas- 
ure varies  from  520  to  540  mm.  in  man  and  from  490  to  510  mm. 
in  woman,  if  taken  from  the  skull.  In  the  case  of  a  living  person 
20  mm.  should  be  added. 

If  we  find  a  circumference  greater  than  normal,  we  are  begin- 
ning to  enter  upon  the  anomaly  which  goes  by  the  name  of  macro- 
cephaly.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  maximum  circumference  is 
notably  smaller,  we  are  entering  upon  the  anomaly  of  microcephaly. 

Measurement  of  Diameters. — Maximum  Antero-posterior  Dia- 
meter.— With  the  left  hand  place  one  branch  of  the  calipers  upon 
the  glabella;  the  other  extreme  point  is  to  be  sought  tenta- 
tively along  a  vertical  line  dividing  the  occiput  in  two  halves. 
Partially  close  the  calipers  by  means  of  the  screw  and  then  make 


375 

trial  by  raising  and  lowering  the  posterior  branch.     It  ought  to 
move  with  a  slight  friction. 

This  is  the  classic  diameter  which  measures  the  maximum 
length  of  the  cranium  and  which,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  customary 
to  compare  with  the  width  in  order  to  obtain  the  cephalic  index. 
In  the  adult  man  it  normally  oscillates  between  170  and  180  mm. 


FIG.  149. — Inspecting  cranium  (lateral  and  vertical  norms). 

Maximum  Transverse  Diameter. — This  measures  the  width 
of  the  cranium.  The  investigator  places  himself  in  front  of  the 
subject  in  order  to  keep  the  compass  quite  horizontal  through 
the  guidance  of  the  eyes.  The  maximum  distance  is  found  by 
experimenting.  It  normally  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the 
supra-auricular  points.  In  children  this  diameter  is  frequently 
situated  higher  up  toward  the  parietal  nodules;  in  men  of  tall 
stature,  in  whom  the  cranial  vault  is  generally  slightly  developed, 
this  diameter  may  be  found,  on  the  contrary,  lower  down,  near 
the  mastoid  apophyses.  If  this  diameter  occurs  similiarly  low 
down  in  children,  a  notable  growth  in  stature  may  be  prophesied 
(Manouvrier);  and  if  inquiry  is  made  it  will  be  found  that  the 
parents  are  very  tall.  This  diameter  measures,  in  the  adult, 
from  140  to  150  mm. 

Vertical  Diameter. — This  measures  the  height  of  the  cranium 
from  the  occipital  foramen  to  the  bregma.  This  diameter  can- 
not be  measured  directly  excepting  on  a  skull;  in  the  case  of  a 
living  person  its  projection  is  taken,  which,  though  far  from 
accurate,  is  given  by  the  distance  between  the  vertex  and  the 
external  auditory  meatus. 


376  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

It  is  necessary  to  use  the  double  square.  The  horizontal  branch 
is  placed  tangent  to  the  vertex,  its  direction  should  be  percepti- 
bly parallel  to  the  transverse  orbital  line,  the  graduated  vertical 
branch  should  pass  over  the  auricular  foramen.  The  required 
number  may  be  read,  corresponding  to  the  point  of  the  tragus. 

The  height  of  the  cranium  is  exceedingly  important;  its  varia- 
tions produce  variations  in  the  physiognomy. 

In  the  first  period  of  childhood,  the  cranium  is  very  low  in 
comparison  to  its  width;  this  is  also  true  of  dwarfs.  In  these 
cases  the  width  of  the  cranial  vault  is  large  in  comparison  to  that 
of  the  base;  a  low  cranium  bulging  above  is  distinctive  of  babies 
and  dwarfs. 

In  the  adult  this  diameter  measures  from  130  to  140  mm. 

Among  the  other  measurements  which  are  taken  on  the  cranium,  the  following 
may  be  cited: 

The  antero-posterior  metopic  diameter:  from  the  metopic  to  the  occipital  point. 
In  children  it  is  sometimes  the  maximum  longitudinal  diameter. 

The  ophryo-iniac  diameter  from  the  ophryon  to  the  inion. 

The  minimum  frontal  diameter:  between  the  two  minimum  frontal  points. 

The  maximum  frontal  diameter:  between  the  two  external  orbital  apophyses. 

The  bistephanic  diameter:  between  the  two  Stephanie  points. 

The  bitemporal  diameter:  this  is  the  greatest  width  of  the  cranium  between  the 
verticals  passing  through  the  base  of  the  tragus. 

The  biauricular  diameter:  the  craniometrical  points  are  in  front  of,  and  a 
little  below,  but  very  near  to  the  upper  insertion  of  the  auricle.  They  are  little 
depressions  that  can  be  felt,  as  we  have  already  said,  by  applying  the  finger 
along  the  upper  edge  of  the  root  of  the  zygomatic  arch. 

Height  of  forehead:  from  the  ophryon  to  the  roots  of  the  hair. 

Circumf erences  and  Curves : 

Anterior  Semicircle. — The  tape  is  applied  from  one  supra-auricular  point  to 
the  other,  passing  through  the  ophryon;  it  corresponds  to  the  anterior  part  of  the 
maximum  circumference.  Manouvrier  measures  it  in  correspondence  to  the 
verticals  erected  from  the  tragus. 

Posterior  Semicircle. — This  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  anterior  semicircle 
from  the  whole  circumference. 

Vertical  Curve  of  the  Head. — The  tape  passes  through  a  plane  that  is  vertical 
to  the  orientated  head,  starting  from  the  supra-auricular  points  or  from  the 
tragus,  according  to  different  authorities. 

Cephalic  Index. — This  is  the  proportion  between  the  maximum 
transverse  and  longitudinal  diameters.  It  is  obtained  by  applying 
the  familiar  formula : 


TECHNICAL  PART  377 

in  which  d  represents  the  transverse  diameter  and  D  the  longi- 
tudinal. The  index  represents  the  percentual  relation  between 
the  two  diameters,  and  is  obtained  from  the  formula  by  reducing  the 
greater  diameter  to  a  scale  of  100,  as  follows: 

D  :  100  =  d  :  X,  whence  X  = 


]} 

Instead  of  working  out  the  calculations,  we  may  find  the 
required  index  in  the  tables  already  compiled. 

Volume.  —  The  volume  of  the  cranium  cannot  be  taken  directly, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  skull.  After  the  various  osseous  foramina 
have  been  closed,  the  cranial  cavity  is  filled  through  the  occipital 
foramen  with  any  one  of  a  number  of  substances  (millet,  shot, 
water,  etc.),  which  is  afterward  measured.  The  method  of  taking 
this  measurement  is  practised  on  a  facsimile  of  a  cranium  already 
calculated,  and  usually  made  of  metal. 

But  in  the  case  of  a  living  person  the  direct  calculation  of  the 
volume  is  impossible.  Nevertheless  various  empirical  methods 
have  been  sought  for  obtaining  this  measurement,  even  though 
imperfect  and  approximate.  Recently  renewed  use  has  been  made, 
especially  in  France,  of  an  approximate  calculation  made  by  means 
of  Broca's  cubic  index.  The  volume  of  the  cranium  is  equal  to 
half  the  product  of  the  three  diameters,  divided  by  an  index  which 
varies  according  to  age. 

This  index  is  as  follows: 

,  /  men  ...................   1.20 

Adults  from  25  years  upward  .......    < 

I,  women  ................    1.15 

.  /  men  ...................   1.15 

Young  persons  from  25  to  20  years  .    < 

\  women  ................   1.10 

,  (  men.  .  .    1  .  10 

Young  persons  from  20  to  lo  years.     < 

\  women  ................   1  .  08 

!  15-10  years  .............  1.07 
10-5  years  .............  1  .  06 
5  years  and  below  .......  1  .  05 

An  index  of  cranial  development  is  afforded  by  the  maximum 
circumference.  The  average  volume  of  the  normal  adult  cranium 
is  about  1,500  cubic  centimetres:  mesocephalic  cranium. 

When  the  cranium  is  much  inferior  in  volume,  it  is  called 
microcephalic  (from  1,200  down  to  700  cubic  centimetres).  When 
on  the  contrary  it  is  much  superior  (from  1,900  up  to  2,200  cubic 
centimetres),  it  is  called  macrocephalic  or  megalocephalic. 


378  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

For  the  face,  the  following  craniometric  points  should  be 
noted : 

Along  a  longitudinal  line: 

1.  The  nasion  (point  of  meeting  of  the  nasal  and  frontal 
bones). 

2.  Subnasal  point    (meeting  of   nasal   septum  with  upper 
maxilla). 

3.  Upper  alveolar  point  (between  the  two  upper  incisors  at 
their  point  of  insertion). 

4.  Lower  alveolar  point  (point  corresponding  to  the  above, 
in  the  lower  maxilla). 

5.  Mental  point  (middle  point  of  the  chin). 

The  following  craniometric  points  are  situated  laterally. 

6.  Auricular  point  (corresponding  to  the  auricular  foramen; 
in  living  persons  it  is  situated  on  the  tragus). 

7.  Malar  point  (on  the  malar  bones). 

8.  Zygomatic  point  (corresponding  to  the  zygomatic  arches). 

9.  Gonion  or  goniac  point  (angle  of  mandible). 

The  face  also  may  be  studied  by  inspection — prosoposcopy ; 
and  by  measurement — prosopometry. 

Prosoposcopy. — We  proceed  to  inspection  according  to  two 
norms:  A.  facial  norm;  B.  lateral  norm  or  norm  of  profile. 

A.  Facial  Norm. — If  it  is  a  question  of  a  living  person,  we  make 
complete  inspection  of  the  visage,  from  the  roots  of  the  hair  to  the 
chin.  First  of  all  we  direct  attention  to  the  forehead,  which  will 
give  us  an  index  of  the  development  of  the  anterior  region  of  the 
brain;  next,  we  observe  whether  a  plane  passing  longitudinally 
through  the  median  line  would  divide  the  face  into  two  equal 
halves  (facial  symmetry). 

From  an  aesthetic  point  of  view,  the  three  following  vertical 
distances  ought  to  correspond  in  length: 

Height  of  forehead  (from  the  roots  of  the  hair  to  the  nasion). 

Length  of  nose  (from  the  nasion  to  the  subnasal  point). 

Labio-mental  height  (from  the  subnasal  point  to  the  point  of  the 
chin).  And  in  regard  to  width  the  three  following  horizontal 
distances  ought,  according  to  the  aesthetic  laws  of  art,  very  nearly 
to  correspond  (especially  in  the  female  face) : 

Width  of  forehead,  between  the  two  external  orbital  points. 
Bimalar  width,  between  the  two  malar  points. 
Bigoniac  width,  between  the  two  gonia. 


TECHNICAL  PART  379 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  standards  of  beauty  do  not 
necessarily  coincide  with  those  of  normality. 

B.  Lateral  Norm. — In  observing  the  face  according  to  this 
norm,  three  facts  should  be  chiefly  noted: 

1.  The  relative  volumetric  development  between  facial  and 
cerebral  cranium. 

2.  The   direction  of  the  forehead,   which,   in   the   normab 
profile,  ought  to  be  vertical. 

3.  Whether  the  facial  profile  protrudes  or  not  beyond  the 
extreme  anterior  limit  of  the  forehead. 

Prosopometry. — Many  forms  of  measurements  are  taken  on 
the  skeleton  of  the  face  and  many  total  and  partial  indices  are 
obtained,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  facial  index,  the  orbital  index, 
the  nasal  index,  etc. 

Measurements  of  diameters  and  angles  are  also  taken  on  the 
face  of  the  living  subject  and  indices  are  obtained. 

We,  however,  shall  limit  ourselves  to  indicating  only  those 
measurements  which  are  taken  most  frequently  in  our  special 
field  of  application. 

The  diameters  and  the  height  of  the  face  are  obtained  by  the 
craniometric  calipers  and  Mathieu's  compass  with  sliding  branches; 
the  facial  angle  is  measured  in  projection  by  means  of  the  double 
square;  and  directly,  by  the  goniometer. 

One  mode  of  measuring  the  facial  angle  in  projection  is  that  of 
drawing  the  facial  profile  with  the  help  of  special  instruments ;  or 
else  of  taking  a  photograph  in  perfect  profile  and  tracing  and 
measuring  the  facial  angle  on  the  picture. 
Principal  Linear  Measurements: 

Total  length  of  visage  :  from  line  of  hair  root  to  point  of  chin. 

Total  length  of  face :  from  the  nasion  to  the  point  of  the  chin. 

Length  of  the  nose:  from  the  nasion  to  the  sub-nasal  point. 

Height  of  mandible:  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  lower  incisors 
to  the  lower  edge  of  mandible. 

Subnase-mental  height:  from  the  subnasal  point  to  the  point 
of  the  chin. 

Bizygomatic  diameter :  between  the  two  bizygomatic  arches. 

Bimalar  diameter:  between  the  two  malar  points. 

Bigoniac  diameter :  between  the  two  gonia. 

Biorbital  diameter:  between  the  two  external  borders  of  the 
orbits. 


380  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Gonio-mental  distance:  from  the  goniac  point  to  the  point  of 
the  chin. 

Auriculo-frontal  radius:  from  the  tragus  or  from  the  auricular 
point  to  the  ophryon. 

Auriculo-subnasal  radius. 

Auriculo-mental  radius. 

(The  last  four  measurements,  if  compared  right  and  left,  give 
an  index  of  facial  symmetry;  the  radii  when  compared  together 
serve  as  an  indirect  measure  of  prognathism.) 

Width  of  nose  between  the  external  borders  of  the  nostrils 
(the  branches  of  Mathieu's  compass  are  placed  tangent  to  the 
nostrils). 

(The  index  of  the  nose  is  obtained  from  the  length  and  breadth, 
by  applying  the  well-known  formula  of  indices;  the  nose  thereupon 
receives  various  names — leptorrhine,  mesorrhine,  platyrrhine) . 

Width  of  orbit:  from  the  inner  extremity  of  the  ocular  rima 
(eye-slit)  to  the  external  border  of  the  orbit. 

Width  of  the  ocular  rima:  between  the  two  extremities  of  the 
rima. 

Width  of  the  labial  rima:  between  the  two  extremities  of  the 
rima. 

Length  of  the  ear:  from  the  highest  upper  edge  of  the  auricle 
to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  lobule. 

Index  of  the  ear:  this  is  obtained,  by  the  well-known  formula, 
from  the  length  and  breadth.  The  normal  index  is  50;  the  types 
of  ear  above  50  are  low  types. 

Anthropologists  obtain  the  facial  index  from  the  skeleton, 
especially  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  proportion  of  the 
face  in  human  remains  found  in  the  geological  strata.  In  such 
crania  the  mandible  is  wanting,  and  the  teeth  are  wanting.  Con- 
sequently, there  are  several  ways  of  computing  the  facial  index, 
because,  while  the  transverse  or  bizygomatic  diameter,  which  is 
considered  as  the  lesser  diameter,  always  remains  constant,  the 
longitudinal,  which  is  considered  as  the  greater,  varies.  The 
longitudinal  diameter  is  calculated  sometimes  from  the  ophryon 
to  the  chin,  at  others  from  the  ophryon  to  the  point  of  insertion  of 
the  two  upper  middle  incisors.  In  the  first  case  it  is  now  less,  and 
again  greater  than  the  bizygomatic  diameter;  in  the  second  case, 
it  is  always  less,  and  the  resulting  facial  index  is  notably  greater 
than  100. 


TECHNICAL  PART  381 

The  most  usual  formula  for  the  facial  index  is  the  following : 
.  _  bizygomatic  diameter  X 100 
ophryo-mental  diameter 

on  the  basis  of  which  Pruner  Bey  gives  the  following  mean  averages 
according  to  race,  for  the  general  facial  index : 

Arabs 96.7 

Chinese 101.7 

Hottentots 105.7 

Tasmanians 109 . 9 

Laplanders 124 . 7 

This  index  is  not  exact  and  constant,  like  that  for  the  cranium ; 
in  fact,  in  case  a  person  loses  his  teeth  the  index  is  altered.  At 
the  present  day,  especially  in  the  French  school,  the  anterior  or 
total  facial  index  is  taken  into  consideration,  in  which  the  vertical 
diameter  is  measured  from  the  vertex  of  the  head  to  the  chin 
(Collignon),  and,  consequently,  the  index  is  always  less  than  100. 
The  following  is  the  nomenclature  that  results  for  the  anterior 
facial  index: 

Leptoprosopics 62  and  below 

Mesoprosopics from  62  to  66 

Chameprosopics 66  and  above 

If  we  take  for  the  measure  of  length  that  of  the  visage,  i.e.,  the 
distance  between  the  middle  point  of  the  frontal  line  of  roots  of 
the  hair  and  the  chin,  we  obtain  indices  that  are  higher  by  5  than 
those  of  the  French  school,  namely: 

Leptoprosopics 67  and  below 

Mesoprosopics from  67  to  71 

Chameprosopics 71  and  above 

In  many  cases  this  index  differs  in  the  individual  by  as  much 
as  10  from  the  cranial  index,  as  I  proved  in  my  work  on  the  popu- 
lation of  Latium.  Consequently,  anyone  who  has  a  cranial  index 
of  81  ought  to  have  a  visage  index  of  71,  etc. 

Contrary  to  what  happens  in  the  case  of  the  cranium,  the 
index  of  the  face  varies  according  to  the  age,  the  face  being  very 
short  in  childhood,  and  much  longer  in  the  adult. 

Angles. — The  angles  distinguished  by  anthropologists  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  take  them  all  under 
consideration. 

In  the  case  of  a  living  person,  the  angles  may  be  measured 

25 


382  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

directly  with  the  aid  of  Broca's  goniometer;  the  transverse  branch 
passes  across  the  subnasal  point;  the  two  antero-posterior  branches 
are  inserted,  with  the  buttons  with  which  they  terminate,  into 
the  external  auricular  canals;  the  vertical  branch,  swinging  on 
a  hinge,  is  adjusted  in  such  a  way  that  the  little  rod  which  it 
carries  at  the  end  rests  upon  the  ophryon. 

This  complicated  instrument  resembles  an  instrument  of 
torture  and  could  not  be  applied  to  children;  furthermore,  it  is 
difficult  to  adjust,  and  consequently  the  angles  that  it  gives  are 
inexact :  every  muscular  contraction  causes  the  angle  to  vary.  For 
this  reason  the  goniometer  is  impracticable. 

If,  by  means  of  an  instrument  we  trace  the  projection  of  the 
facial  profile,  the  facial  angle  may  be  taken  on  such  a  drawing; 
it  may  also  be  traced  and  calculated  on  a  photograph  taken  in 
profile. 

Broca's  angle  is  that  included  between  the  auricular  foramen, 
the  subnasal  point  and  the  ophryon. 

Camper's  angle  is  that  included  between  the  auricular  foramen, 
the  point  of  insertion  of  the  upper  incisors  and  the  metopic  point. 

We,  on  the  contrary,  in  judging  of  the  facial  angle,  or  rather  of 
the  existence  and  degree  of  prognathism,  have  resorted  to  inspec- 
tion, aided  by  certain  facial  lines,  namely  (Fig.  104) : 

a.  Vertical  Facial  Line. — If  the  subject  holds  his  head  level, 
with  the  occipital  point  in  contact  with  a  vertical  rod,  and  his 
gaze  fixed  straight  before  him,  then  what  we  call  the  vertical 
line  is  the  line  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  direction  of  the 
gaze,  and  tangent  to  the  extreme  anterior  limit  of  the  brain. 
This  line,  in  the  perfect  human  face,  is  perpendicular  to  the  hori- 
zontal line  uniting  the  auricular  point  with  the  subnasal  point, 
and  hence  forms  a  right  angle  with  it. 

b.  Line  of  Facial  Profile. — This  is  the  line  uniting  the  nasal 
point  with  the  subnasal  point.     This  line  is  never  vertical,  and 
therefore  cannot  form  a  right  angle  with  the  auriculo-subnasal 
line,  but  forms  an  angle  that  approximates  more  or  less  nearly 
to  a  right  angle  (85°) :  this  is  the  facial  angle. 

Transversely  there  is  only  one  line  for  us  to  consider,  and  it 
has  already  been  noted: 

c.  The  auriculo-subnasal  line,  or  line  of  orientation. 

Facial  Norm. — Our  attention  should  be  directed,  as  we  have 
already  said: 


TECHNICAL  PART  383 

1.  To  the  forehead. 

This,  if  anomalous,  may  be : 

Broad  (if  greater  than  133  mm.). 
Narrow  (if  less  than  100  mm.). 
High  (if  over  60  mm.). 
Low  (if  under  50  mm.). 

V 

2.  To  the  Symmetry  of  the  Face. — If  the  face  is  notably 
asymmetrical,  in  respect  to  a  plane  dividing  it  longitudinally, 
the  fact  is  at  once  perceptible.     But  a  slight  asymmetry  may 
fail  to  be  detected  either  by  measurements  (trago-mental  diam- 
eters) or  by  inspection.     Consequently,  it  will  be  well  to  follow 
certain  practical  rules  in  making  this  observation. 

Observe  first  of  all  the  median  line  of  the  face:  the  bridge  of 
the  nose,  the  nasal  septum,  the  upper  labial  furrow  and  the  point 
of  the  chin  ought  all  to  lie  in  the  same  vertical  line;  very  often  a 
slight  deviation  of  the  nasal  septum  above  the  upper  labial  furrow 
will  betray  the  asymmetry;  furthermore,  the  two  naso-labial 
plicce  or  folds  should  be  noted,  for  they  ought  to  be  symmetrical 
in  direction  and  in  depth;  lastly,  we  must  observe  the  symmetry  of 
the  zygomatic  prominences.  We  shall  often  discover  three 
concurrent  facts:  a  slight  deviation  in  the  median  line  of  the  face 
usually  corresponding  to  the  nasal  septum;  a  greater  depth  of 
one  of  the  naso-labial  plicae;  and  a  greater  prominence  of  the 
zygoma  and  the  cheek  on  the  same  side. 

Our  attention  should  next  be  turned  to  the  correspondence 
required  by  aesthetics  between  the  following  three  diameters: 

Minimum  frontal. 

Bizygomatic. 

Bigoniac. 

A  very  notable  difference  between  these  distances  may  also 
lead  to  the  discovery  of  anomalies. 

Sometimes  we  may  discover,  even  by  inspection  alone,  a  nota- 
ble narrowness  of  the  frontal  diameter,  as  compared  with  the  other 
two. 

The  bizygomatic  diameter  may  show  an  exaggerated  develop- 
ment, and  this  is  frequently  accompanied  by  a  hollowness  in  the 
temporal  and  upper  maxillary  regions  and  by  a  beak-like  prog- 
nathism  (prominence  of  the  middle  portion  of  the  upper  maxilla) ; 


384  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

at  other  times  this  degenerative  sign  calls  our  attention  to  the 
mongoloid  type. 

The  bigoniac  diameter  may  also  show  an  exaggerated  develop- 
ment due  to  the  enormous  volume  of  the  mandible  (criminaloid 
type — Lombroso's  assassin  type).  It  is  necessary  to  supplement 
our  observation  with  the  measurement  of  these  three  diameters, 
because  it  may  very  often  appear  to  the  eye  that  the  minimum 
frontal  diameter  is  below  the  normal,  merely  by  comparison  with 
the  other  two  diameters  which  are  overdeveloped;  while  when 
measured,  it  may  turn  out  to  be  normal.  Or,  conversely,  the 
other  diameters,  the  bizygomatic  or  bigoniac,  although  actually 
normal,  may  appear  overdeveloped,  because  of  the  shortness 
of  the  minimum  frontal  diameter  (see  "  Faces  of  Inferior  Type." 

Meanwhile  we  must  not  forget  that  the  following  are  signs 
of  grave  degeneration: 

a.  The  minimum  frontal  diameter  less  than  100  mm.  (the 
gravity  of  this  is  increased  if  at  the  same  time  the  other  two 
diameters  are  found  as  described  in  6). 

6.  The  other  two  diameters  greater  than  110  mm.  (Lom- 
broso's born  delinquents,  assassin  type). 

Lateral  Norm,  or  Norm  of  Profile. — Our  attention  ought  to  be 
directed,  as  we  have  already  said: 

1.  To  the  direction  of  the  forehead.     If  abnormal,  this  may  be: 

a.  Receding; 

b.  Bombe. 

The  receding  forehead  is  an  indication  of  an  incomplete  or 
defective  development  of  the  frontal  lobe  of  the  brain;  we  find 
the  forehead  notably  receding  in  the  microcephalic  type. 

The  bombe  forehead  is  characteristic  of  hydrocephaly,  but 
may  occur  also  in  the  scaphoid  cranium.  When  the  forehead  is 
bombe",  the  facial  angle  becomes  equal  to  or  greater  than  a  right 
angle,  because  the  face  recedes  beneath  the  extreme  anterior 
boundary  of  the  brain;  in  this  case  we  have  the  opposite  case  to 
prothognathism,  namely,  orthognathism. 

2.  Our  attention  should  next  be  directed  to  the  facial  profile, 
in  order  to  observe  the  form  and  degree  of  prognathism. 

The  authorities  distinguish  three  principal  forms  of  prog- 
nathism : 


TECHNICAL  PART  385 

a.  Prognathism  properly  so-called:  prominence  of  the  upper 
maxilla  as  a  whole. 

b.  Prophatnia. — Prominence  of  the  alveoli. 

c.  Progeneism. — Prominence    of   the   mandible — the   lower 
dental  arch  projects  in  front  of  the  upper. 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  THE  THORAX 

Principal  anthropometric  points:  acromial  point;  sternal  fossa; 
xiphoid  point;  mammillary  points. 

Measurements. — Thoracic  Circumference. — Already  described 
among  the  measurements  of  the  form. 

Recording  instruments  are  now  made  that  are  exceedingly 
complicated  and  quite  costly,  that  register  the  movements  of  res- 
piration; they  are  used  in  medical  clinics,  but  would  be  of  little 
practical  use  in  our  schools. 

Axillary  and  Submammary  Circumference. — Taken  as  above, 
but  at  different  levels. 

Biacromial  Diameter. — This  is  taken  by  means  of  special  cali- 
pers called  a  thoracimeter  or  pelvimeter,  because  it  is  used  to  obtain 
the  big  measurements  of  the  body  (thorax  and  pelvis).  The  two 
buttons  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  are  applied  to  the  acromial 
points,  while  the  measurer  occupies  a  position  in  front  of  the  sub- 
ject to  be  measured. 

Transverse  Thoracic  Diameter. — The  buttons  of  the  thorac- 
imeter are  applied  on  a  level  with  the  mammary  papillae,  along  the 
axillary  lines  (vertical  lines  descending  from  the  centre  of  the 
arm-pits. 

Antero-posterior  Thoracic  Diameter. — This  is  also  taken  at  the 
level  of  the  nipples:  the  branches  are  applied  anteriorly  on  the 
sternum  and  posteriorly  on  the  vertebral  channel. 

These  two  diameters  serve  to  furnish  the  thoracic  index: 

rp.  _    lOOd  (antero-posterior) 
D     (transverse) 

Spirometer. — The  subject  takes  a  maximum  inspiration  and 
retains  his  breath  until  he  has  exactly  fitted  his  mouth  to  the  appa- 
ratus; then  he  emits  all  his  breath  in  a  forced  expiration.  This 
causes  the  index  to  rise,  and  the  amount  may  be  read  upon  it. 

Sternal  Length. — From  the  xiphoid  point  to  the  sternal  fossa. 

Bimammillary  Diameter. — Distance  between  the  two  nipples. 


386 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Abdomen. — It  would  be  really  difficult  to  take  measurements 
of  the  abdomen  in  the  school.  The  principal  anthropometric 
points  to  remember  are  the  umbilical  point,  the  two  antero-superior 
iliac  points,  the  pubis. 

The  distances  which  it  would  be  useful  to  take  are  the  follow- 
ing: xipho-umbilical  and  umbilico-pubic  distances,  which  give  an 
idea  of  the  upper  development  (liver)  and  lower  development 
(intestines)  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  biacromial  diameter  which 
measures  the  width  of  the  pelvis. 

Limbs. — In  the  case  of  the  limbs  also  it  is  by  no  means  easy  or 
practicable  to  take  many  measurements.  Consequently  it  should 


FIG.   .150. 

be  sufficient  to  indicate  that  there  are  a  great  number  of  different 
measurements  for  every  different  segment  of  the  limbs. 

There  are  two  principal  instruments  needed  for  this:  a  large 
compass  with  adjustable  branches,  for  the  long  segments,  and  a 
small  compass  for  the  short  segments.  With  the  large  compass 
we  measure  the  length  of  the  upper  arm  and  forearm,  the  length 
of  the  thigh  and  shin,  the  length  of  the  foot.  With  the  small  com- 
pass we  measure  the  total  length  of  the  hand,  its  width,  the  length 
of  the  fingers  and  of  the  digital  segments,  etc. 

The  circumference  of  the  limbs  is  taken  with  the  ordinary 
metallic  tape. 

In  order  to  fulfil  the  present-day  scope  of  pedagogic  anthro- 
pology, it  is  sufficient  to  take  only  a  few  measurements  (the  form 
and  the  head) ,  but  it  is  necessary  to  take  them  with  great  accuracy, 
and  above  all,  to  verify  one's  personal  ability  as  a  measurer,  so 


TECHNICAL  PART  387 

that  everyone  who  wishes  to  try  the  experiment  may  have  a  re- 
liable method  of  testing  himself.  To  this  end  it  is  necessary  to 
know  how  to  calculate  one's  own  special  personal  error. 

THE  PERSONAL  ERROR 

In  anthropometry,  a  knowledge  of  the  anthropometric  points, 
the  instruments  to  apply  to  them,  their  use  and  their  interpretation, 
is  not  sufficient.  There  is  need  of  prolonged  experience  in  accord- 
ance with  the  accepted  method  and  under  a  practical  guide. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  a  meas- 
urement is  taken  is  always  relative,  no  matter  who  takes  it,  but 
in  the  case  of  a  person  who  has  had  no  practice  this  relativity  may 
present  so  wide  a  margin  as  to  be  practically  useless. 

To  obtain  an  approximate  figure  of  a  measurement  means 
nothing,  unless  the  figure  is  supplemented  not  only  by  a  statement 
as  to  which  of  the  accepted  methods  was  used  in  taking  it,  but  also 
by  a  minute  description  of  the  manner  in  which  this  method  was 
carried  out. 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind : 

1.  That  the  ability  to  find  the  anthropometric  points  im- 
plies a  certain  knowledge  of  anatomy;  it  is  a  practical  research, 
to  be  made  under  the  guidance  of  a  teacher,  while  the  actual  find- 
ing of  the  points  as  well  as  the  taking  of  the  measurements,  should 
be  left  to  the  learner. 

2.  That  the  manner  of  applying  the  instruments  is  not  with- 
out effect  upon  the  resulting  figure:  for  example,  if  the  compass 
is  held  horizontally  in  measuring  the  frontal  diameter,  the  result 
is  different  from  what  it  would  be  if  the  instrument  were  held 
vertically.    If  the  compass  is  held  by  the  extremities  of  the  branches, 
the  diameter  is  slightly  different  from  what  it  would  be  if  the  com- 
pass was  held  by  the  handle.     Accordingly,  it  is  necessary  to  de- 
scribe minutely  how  we  are  accustomed  to  hold  the  instruments. 

3.  That  the  resulting  figure  differs  according  to  whether  or 
not  the  screw  has  been  turned,  or  whether  it  has  been  read  in  posi- 
tion, or  by  approaching  the  instrument  to  the  eye. 

4.  That  when  an  instrument  is  old,  it  registers  different 
results  from  those  it  gave  when  new ;  consequently,  it  is  necessary 
to  verify  it,  before  proceeding  to  take  a  series  of  measurements. 
Hence  it  is  proper  to  state  not  only  precisely  what  instrument  is 
used,  but  also  that  the  precaution  has  been  taken  to  verify  it. 


388  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

But  what  is  still  more  important  is  to  find  out  one's  own  per- 
sonal data. 

If  the  same  measurement  is  taken  twice  under  precisely 
similar  conditions,  the  same  figure  is  hardly  ever  obtained  both 
times;  everyone,  even  the  most  experienced,  has  his  own  personal 
error.  By  practice  the  amount  of  this  error  may  be  steadily 
lowered,  but  cannot  be  eliminated.  Constant  figures  are  an 
evidence  of  dishonesty,  of  mere  copying;  they  are  almost  certainly 
not  authentic. 

It  is  important  to  know  one's  own  average  error. 
It  is  calculated  as  follows: 

Let  us  suppose  that  successive  attempts  have  resulted  in  the 
following  figures  relative  to  the  same  measurement : 

9,  10,  11,  12,  8 

The  mean  average  of  these  numbers  is 
9  +  10+11  +  12+8 

5 

Let  us  see  how  the  values  obtained  differ  in  respect  to  10 : 

9  10  11  12  8 

10 

—  1,  0,  +1,  +2,  —  2  =  differences  from  the  mean  average 
figure.  We  now  take  the  average  of  these  differences,  disregarding 
the  plus  and  minus  signs: 

1+0+1+2+2      6 

— F~        -  =  c  =  1.2  =  mean  average  error 

The  personal  mean  error  is  a  datum  that  it  is  necessary  to 
know  in  order  to  give  value  to  any  measurements  that  we  may 
wish  to  give  forth. 

In  taking  the  various  test  measurements  for  the  purpose  of 
calculating  one's  personal  error,  it  is  well  to  use  the  precaution 
of  not  taking  them  twice  at  the  same  sitting,  but  after  an  interval 
of  time,  not  only  so  that  all  marks  will  have  disappeared  that  may 
have  been  left  upon  the  skin  by  the  instrument  in  the  act  of  meas- 
uring, but  also  that  the  preceding  figure  will  have  faded  from  our 
memory.  Accordingly,  the  measurements  should  be  repeated 
on  successive  days  and  if  possible  under  the  same  conditions 
of  time  and  place. 

It  is  well  to  make  a  careful  choice  of  the  time  and  place,  because 
these  also  have  their  effect  upon  the  figures. 


TECHNICAL  PART  389 

It  will  be  observed  that  if  the  measurements  are  made  in  a 
well-appointed  place,  with  a  steady  light,  without  noises,  in  short, 
without  disturbing  causes,  the  personal  error  is  much  more  easily 
decreased,  i.e.,  the  measurements  are  more  exact,  because  the 
measurer  can  better  concentrate  his  attention. 

Even  the  hour  of  the  day  has  an  influence  upon  the  figures. 
It  is  known  that  none  of  us  has  the  same  ability  to  perform  our 
various  tasks  at  all  the  different  hours  of  the  day;  for  instance, 
it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  we  ask  the  pupils  in  a 
school  to  solve  a  problem  at  one  hour  of  the  day  rather  than  at 
another.  This  is  true  of  all  occupations,  and  hence  also  of  anthro- 
pometry; there  are  certain  hours  of  the  day  at  which  fewer  errors 
in  measurement  will  be  made,  independently  of  the  state  of 
fatigue. 

Consequently,  it  is  well  to  know  this  individual  datum,  and 
to  tell  at  what  hour  and  in  what  environment  the  measures  have 
been  taken. 

The  figures  are  of  more  value  if  they  have  been  compared 
with  the  results  of  other  observers;  it  is  necessary,  after  we  have 
found  our  own  average  error,  to  select,  for  the  purpose  of  verifying 
our  results,  some  other  observer,  of  similar  experience  to  our 
own,  and  whose  personal  error  is  also  known. 

Here  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  still  another 
factor — one's  personal  susceptibility  to  suggestion.  If  we  have 
confidence  in  the  person  through  whom  we  verify  our  figures, 
we  are  inclined  to  obtain  figures  equal  to  his  own.  We  have  only 
to  compare  our  earlier  figures  with  those  since  we  began  to  use 
him  as  a  test,  in  order  to  see  whether,  and  to  what  extent  we  are 
influenced  by  suggestion.  Hence,  to  obviate  this  danger  it  is 
necessary  to  obtain  our  respective  figures  without  communicating 
them  to  each  other. 

It  will  also  be  necessary  to  take  precautions  not  to  be  influenced 
by  suggestion  under  any  other  circumstances.  For  instance, 
we  are  in  hopesj  while  taking  a  series  of  measurements  of  school 
children,  that  we  shall  be  able  to  prove  that  the  heads  of  the 
more  intelligent  are  larger  than  those  of  the  less  intelligent.  In 
order  that  the  figures  shall  be  free  from  alterations  due  to  sugges- 
tion, it  is  necessary  that  the  measurer,  while  actually  taking  the 
measurements,  shall  be  unaware  which  children  are  better  and 
which  are  worse,  from  the  intellectual  point  of  view. 


390  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  personal  error  cannot  be  calculated  in  regard  to  a  single 
measurement  and  then  applied  to  all  the  others,  but  it  must  be 
worked  out  anew  for  every  separate  measurement;  it  oscillates 
variously,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  relation  to  the  longer  and  shorter 
diameters,  the  cranial  measurements,  and  the  measurements  of 
the  trunk  and  the  limbs. 

We  are  sufficiently  skilled  to  take  measurements  when  we 
have  attained  for  measurements  of  cranial  diameters  a  mean 
error  of  from  1  to  2  mm.,  for  the  vertical  cranial  diameter  one 
of  4  mm.,  and  for  the  stature,  one  of  from  5  to  6  mm. 

Finally,  in  anthropometry,  theory  is  of  no  value  without  a 
long  and  intelligent  practice,  constituting  an  actual  and  personal 
education  in  anthropometric  technique. 

All  anthropometric  figures  have  a  relative  value  dependent 
upon  the  extent  of  this  education  in  the  individual  investigator. 

This  is  a  case  in  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  figures  are 
worthless  without  the  signature. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY 

HAVING  taken  measurements  with  the  rigorous  technical  pre- 
cision that  is  to-day  demanded  by  anthropometry,  we  should  know 
how  to  extract  from  these  figures  certain  laws,  or  at  least  certain 
statistical  conclusions. 

There  are  two  principal  methods  of  regrouping  the  figures: — 
mean  averages  and  seriations. 

Mean  Averages. — Averages  are  obtained,  as  is  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  and  practice,  by  taking  the  sum  of  all  the 
figures  and  dividing  the  result  by  the  number  of  data.  The  gen- 
eral formula  is  as  follows: 

a+b+c+d 
1+1+1+1 

When  comparative  figures  are  given,  as,  for  example,  those 
recorded  by  Quete"le"t  for  the  stature,  the  diameters  of  the  head, 
etc.,  such  figures  are  always  mean  averages. 

Such  averages  may  be  more  or  less  general.  We  might,  for 
example,  obtain  a  mean  average  of  the  stature  of  Italians,  and 
this  would  be  more  general  than  the  mean  stature  for  a  single 
region  of  Italy,  and  this  again  more  general  than  the  mean  stature 
for  a  city,  or  for  some  specified  social  class,  etc. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  how  the  mean  will  be  affected,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  individuals  examined,  because  it  is  obvious 
that  the  mean  stature  of  Italians  cannot  be  based  upon  meas- 
urements of  all  Italians,  but  upon  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of 
individuals.  Now,  if  we  take  various  different  numbers  of  indi- 
viduals, shall  we  obtain  different  mean  statures?  And  if  so,  what 
number  of  subjects  must  we  have  at  our  disposal  in  order  to  ob- 
tain a  constant  medial  figure,  and  hence  the  one  that  represents 
the  real  mean  average?  It  has  been  determined  that  a  relatively 
small  number  will  suffice  to  give  the  mean,  if  the  measurements 
are  taken  with  uniform  method  and  from  the  same  class  of  sub- 
jects (sex,  age,  race,  etc.) ;  for  the  cranium,  25  subjects  are  sufficient, 
and  for  the  stature,  100  subjects. 

391 


392 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


This  method  furnishes  us  with  an  abstract  number,  insofar 
as  it  does  not  correspond  to  any  real  individual,  but  it  serves  to 
give  us  the  synthetic  idea  of  an  entirety.  In  anthropology  we 
need  this  sort  of  fundamental  synthesis  before  proceeding  to 
individual  analysis  for  the  purpose  of  interpreting  a  specified 
person. 

Now,  it  is  evident  that  the  figures  representing  the  mean 
stature  for  each  region  in  Italy  give  us  a  basis  for  judging  of  the 
distribution  of  this  important  datum,  while  an  accumulation  of  a 
hundred  thousand  individual  figures  would  lead  to  nothing  more 
profitable  than  confusion  and  weariness. 

The  following  table,  however,  is  quite  clear  and  instructive: 

MEAN  STATURE  IN  ITALY 
(According  to  Departments) 


Departments 

Stature 
in  centimetres 

Piedmont  

162.7 

Liguria  .        . 

163  7 

Lombardy  

163.6 

Venetia  

165.4 

Emilia  

164.0 

Tuscany  .                    .    .            .        

164.3 

Marches  

162.4 

Umbria  

162.7 

Latium  .                           .        .            

'   162.5 

Abruzzi  and  Molise  

160.6 

Campania  

161.3 

Apulia  

160.4 

Basilicata  

158.9 

Calabria.  ...        

159.4 

Sicily  

161.1 

Sardinia                                 » 

158  9 

Yet  the  interpretation  of  such  a  table  is  not  simple;  it  is  nec- 
essary to  read  the  numbers,  to  remember  them  in  their  reciprocal 
relation;  and  it  demands  effort  and  time  to  acquire  a  clear  and 
synthetic  idea  of  the  distribution  in  Italy  of  this  one  datum,  stature. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  must  lose  as  little  time  and  spare  our 
forces  as  far  as  possible.  The  value  of  positive  methodology  lies 
in  the  extent  to  which  it  accomplishes  these  two  subjects. 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY  393 

Geographical  charts  serve  the  purpose  of  this  desired  sim- 
plification. Let  us  take  an  outline  map  of  Italy,  divide  it  into 
regions,  and  colour  these  different  regions  darker  or  lighter,  in 
proportion  as  the  stature  is  higher  or  lower. 

The  gradations  and  shadings  in  colour  will  tell  us  at  a  single 
glance,  and  without  any  fatigue  on  our  part,  what  the  table  of 
figures  reveals  at  the  cost  of  a  very  perceptible  effort.  Little 
squares  must  be  added  on  the  margin  of  the  chart,  corresponding 
to  the  gradations  in  colour,  and  opposite  them  the  figures  which  they 
respectively  indicate — after  the  fashion  in  which  the  scale  of  re- 
duction is  given  in  every  geographical  map.  In  this  way  we  may 
study  these  charts,  and  then*  examination  is  pleasant  and  inter- 
esting, while  it  successfully  associates  the  two  ideas  of  an  "anthro- 
pometric  datum"  and  of  a  "region,"  a  result  which  a  series  of 
figures,  pure  and  simple,  could  not  achieve. 

We  have  seen  Livi's  charts  of  Italy,  both  for  stature  and  for 
the  cephalic  index.  Analogous  charts  may  be  constructed  for  all 
the  different  data,  for  example,  the  colour  of  the  hah*,  the  shape  of 
the  nose,  the  facial  index,  etc.  In  the  same  manner  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  a  still  more  analytical  distribution  of  anthropometric  data 
among  the  different  provinces  of  a  single  region.  For  example, 
I  myself  prepared  charts  of  this  sort  for  the  stature,  the  cephalic 
index  and  the  pigmentation  of  the  population  of  Latium. 

Sometimes  we  want  to  see  in  one  single,  comprehensive  glance, 
the  progress  of  some  anthropological  datum;  for  instance,  in  its 
development  through  different  ages.  Quete" let's  series  of  figures 
for  growth  in  stature,  in  weight,  in  the  diameters  of  the  head,  the 
cranial  circumference,  etc.,  offer  when  read  the  same  difficulty  as 
the  similar  tables  of  distribution  according  to  regions.  On  the 
contrary,  we  get  a  synthetic,  sweeping  glance  in  diagrams,  such 
as  the  one  which  shows  the  growth  of  stature  in  the  two  sexes. 
The  method  of  constucting  such  diagrams  is  very  simple,  and  is 
widely  employed.  When  we  wish  to  represent  in  physics  certain 
phenomena  and  laws;  or  in  hygiene,  the  progress  of  mortality 
through  successive  years,  etc.,  we  make  use  of  the  method  of 
diagrams. 

Let  us  draw  two  fundamental  lines  meeting  in  a  right  angle 
at  A  (Fig.  151) :  AS  is  known  as  the  axis  of  the  abscissa;  AO,  the 
axis  of  the  ordinates.  We  divide  each  of  these  lines  into  equal  parts. 
Let  us  assume  that  the  divisions  of  AS  represent  the  years  of  age, 


394 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


and  those  of  AO  the  measurements  of  stature  in  centimetres;  and 
since  the  new-born  child  has  an  average  height  of  50  cm.,  we  may 
place  50  as  the  initial  figure.  From  the  figure  0  (age)  and  from 
50  cm.  (measure),  we  erect  perpendiculars  meeting  at  a,  where  we 
mark  the  point.  At  the  age  of  one  year  the  average  stature  is 
about  70  cm.,  accordingly  we  erect  perpendiculars  from  1  (age) 
and  from  70  (measure),  obtaining  the  point  c.  Since  the  stature 
at  two  years  is  about  80  cm.  the  same  procedure  gives  us  the  point 
e.  Since  the  stature  at  the  age  of  three  is  about  86  cm.,  I  erect 
the  perpendicular  from  a  level  slightly  higher  than  half-way  be- 
tween 80  and  90,  obtaining  the  point  i;  and  so  on,  for  the  rest. 


0 

130 
110. 


r>S 

r\ 

80 

/ 

1 

70 

e 

60 

to 

c 

A 

a 

...                                      .? 

abscissae 


FIG.  151. 


Meanwhile  we  begin  to  be  able  to  see  at  a  glance  that  the  stature 
increases  greatly  in  the  first  year  and  that  thereafter  the  intensity 
of  its  growth  steadily  diminishes. 

If  we  unite  the  points  thus  constructed,  the  line  of  representa- 
tion is  completed. 

The  verticals  Oa,  Ic,  2e,  etc.,  are  the  ordinates,  and  the  hori- 
zontals 50a,  70c,  etc.,  are  the  abscissae  of  the  line  of  representation; 
and  since  it  is  constructed  along  the  intersections  of  these  lines, 
they  are  for  that  reason  collectively  called  coordinates.  It  is  usual 
in  constructing  these  diagrams  to  mark  the  coordinates  in  such  a 
way  that  they  will  not  be  apparent,  instead  of  which  only  the  axes 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY 


395 


and  the  line  representing  the  development  of  the  phenomenon  are 
shown  (Fig.  152). 

Sometimes  a  different  method  of  representing  the  phenomenon 
graphically  is  followed,  namely,  by  tracing  the  successive  series 
of  distances  developed  on  the  ordinates  (Fig.  153) ;  in  which  case 
the  characteristic  arrangement  of  the  lines  causes  this  to  be  known 
as  the  organ-pipe  method.  > 

The  diagram  for  the  growth  in  stature,  given  earlier  in  this 
volume,  is  constructed  according  to  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  151. 
When  there  are  a  great  number  of  data  to  represent,  which  over- 
lap and  interweave,  this  method  of  graphic  representation  still 
lends  itself  admirably  to  the  purpose ;  in  such  a  case  we  shall  have 
a  number  of  broken  lines,  either  parallel  or  intersecting,  which  may 


fffO 

9^ 
80 
70 
60 
SO 


0    f    2     3 
FIG.  153. 


be  distinguished  by  different  colours  or  different  methods  of  tracing 
(dots,  stars,  etc.),  so  that  they  may  interweave  without  becoming 
confused,  thus  giving  us  at  a  glance  the  development  of  several 
phenomena  at  once  (for  example,  total  stature  and  sitting  stature, 
length  of  upper  and  lower  limbs,  in  one  and  the  same  diagram). 

For  the  purpose  of  practice,  a  graphic  representation  of  the 
changes  in  ponderal  weight  through  the  different  ages  may  be 
constructed  in  class.  The  figures  for  stature  and  weight  at  each 
age  should  be  read  aloud;  one  student  can  find  the  corresponding 
ponderal  index  in  the  tables,  while  another  constructs  the  graphic 
line  upon  the  blackboard. 

In  this  manner  we  can  see  better  than  by  reading  the  figures, 
how  the  ponderal  index  increases  during  the  first  year  and  becomes 


396 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


much  higher  during  early  infancy;  and  then  how  it  diminishes  up 
to  the  age  of  puberty,  holding  its  ground  with  slight  oscillations 
during  the  puberal  period;  after  which  it  again  increases  when  the 
individual  begins  to  fill  out  after  the  seventeenth  year,  and  once 
again  later  when  he  takes  on  flesh,  to  fall  off  again  during  the  clos- 
ing years,  when  old  age  brings  lean  and  shrunken  limbs. 

Seriation. — Another  method  of  rearranging  the  figures  is  that 
of  seriation.  Let  us  assume  that  we  are  taking  the  average  of  a 
thousand  statures,  or  of  hundreds  of  thousands.  We  will  try  to 
find  some  means  of  simplifying  the  calculation.  Since  the  indi- 
vidual oscillations  of  stature  are  contained  within  a  few  centimetres 
and  the  individuals  amount  to  thousands,  large  numbers  will  be 
found  to  have  the  same  identical  statures.  Accordingly,  let  us 
rearrange  the  individuals  according  to  their  stature,  obtaining  the 
following  result : 


Stature  in  metres 

Number  of  individuals 

1.50 

20 

1.55 

80 

1.60 

140 

1.61 

200 

1.62 

300 

1.63 

450 

1.70 

100 

1.75 

80 

1.80 

10 

By  multiplying  the  1.50  by  20,  1.55  by  80,  etc.,  and  by  adding 
the  results,  we  shall  have  simplified  the  process  for  obtaining 
the  sum  total  which  must  then  be  divided  by  the  number  of 
individuals. 

Well,  while  doing  this  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  cal- 
culation, we  have  hit  upon  the  method  of  distributing  the  indi- 
viduals in  a  series,  that  is,  we  have  regrouped  the  corresponding 
figures  according  to  seriation. 

Seriation  has  been  discovered  as  a  method  of  analysing  the 
mean  average,  and  it  demonstrates  three  things:  first,  the  extent 
of  oscillations  of  anthropologic  data,  a  thing  which  the  mean 
average  completely  hides, — indeed,  we  have  seen  in  the  case 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY 


397 


of  the  cephalic  index  the  mean  averages  oscillate  between  75  and 
85,  when  calculated  for  the  separate  regions,  while,  in  the  case 
of  individuals,  the  oscillations  extend  from  70  to  90;  secondly, 
it  shows  the  numerical  prevalence  of  individuals  for  the  one  or 
the  other  measurement ;  third,  and  finally,  seriation  reveals  a  law, 
to  us,  namely,  that  the  distribution  of  individuals,  according  to 
anthropological  data,  is  not  a  matter  of  chance;  there  is  a  preva-v 
lence  of  individuals  corresponding  to  certain  average  figures, 
and  the  number  of  individuals  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the 
measurements  depart  from  the  mean  average,  equally  whether 
they  increase  or  diminish. 

I  take  from  Livi  certain  numerical  examples  of  serial  distri- 
bution : 


Stature  in  inches 

Number  of  observations 

60 

6 

61 

26 

62 

32 

63 

26 

64 

160 

65 

154 

66 

191 

67 

128 

68 

160 

69 

89 

70 

45 

71 

7 

72 

6 

73 

3 

74 

1 

Although  these  figures  are  not  rigorously  exact,  there  is  a 
certain  numerical  prevalence  of  individuals  in  relation  to  the 
stature  of  66  inches,  and  above  and  below  this  point  the  number 
of  individuals  diminishes,  becoming  very  few  toward  the  extremes. 

The  lack  of  exactness  and  of  agreement  in  serial  distribution 
is  due  to  the  numerical  scarcity  of  individuals.  If  this  number 
were  doubled,  if  it  were  centupled,  we  should  see  the  serial  dis- 
tribution become  systematised  to  the  point  of  producing,  for 
example,  such  symmetrical  series  as  the  following: 

26 


398 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


i 

12 
66 
220 
495 
792 
924 

792 

495 

220 

66 

12 

1 


1 

16 

120 

560 

1,820 

3,368 

8,008 

11,440 

12,870 

11,440 

8,008 

3,368 

1,820 

560 

120 

16 

1 


1 

15 

105 

455 

1,365 

3,003 

5,005 

6,435 

6,435 

5,005 

3,003 

1,365 

455 

105 

15 

1 


This  law  of  distribution  is  one  of  the  most  wide-spread  laws; 

it  ordains  the  way  in  which  the  characteristics  of  animals  and 

plants  alike  must  behave;  and  the  statistical  method  which  is 

beginning  to  be  introduced  into  botany  sheds  much  light  upon  it. 

This  law  may  be  represented  graphically  by  arranging  the 

anthropologic  data  on  the 
abscissae  (e.g.,  those  of  stat- 
ure), and  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals on  the  ordinates. 
In  such  cases  we  have 
a  curve  with  a  maximum 
central  height  and  a  sym- 
metrical bilateral  diminu- 
tion (Fig.  121):  this  is  the 
curve  of  Que"te"let. 

Or  better  yet,  it  is  known 

as  Quetelet's  binomial  curve,  because  this  anthropologist  was  the 
first  to  represent  the  law  graphically  and  to  perceive  that  its 
development  was  the  same  as  that  so  well  known  in  mathemat- 
ics for  the  coefficients  in  Newton's  binomial  theorem. 

Newton's  binomial  theorem  is  the  law  for  raising  any  binomial 
to  the  nth  power,  and  is  expanded  in  algebra  as  follows : 


FIG.  154. 


n(n  —  1) 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY  399 


substituting  for  n  some  determined  coefficient,  for  example,  10, 
the  binomial  would  develop,  in  regard  to  its  coefficients,  after  the 
following  fashion: 


2 

+fi^W+P^W+ 
*\  2.3  r  hv  2.3.4  r 

10.98.7.6\  „.  , /10.9.8.7.6.5N  , 

+     o  o  A  c  *      Q4o6+ 


2.3.4.5   /"      ^V   2.3.4.5.6  . 

_„_ 5.4.3X 

'I       r»   o    A    p   />   irr        /"    ™    "  r»o^f/»^rr>        /" 


/ 10.9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2  \  0 

f\   2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9    )a( 

Whence  it  appears  that,  after  performing  the  necessary  reductions, 
the  coefficients  following  the  central  one  diminish  symmetrically 
in  the  same  manner  as  they  increased:  that  is,  according  to  the 
selfsame  law  that  we  meet  in  the  anthropological  statistics  of 
seriations. 

Indeed,  here  is  the  binomial  theorem  with  the  reductions  made : 


10.9,8\  „.  ,/10.9.8.7     6M 

In7/)3  4- 1 In6/)4 4- 

2.3  Ja      H    2.3.4      a 
10.9.8.7.6 


400  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

And  after  calculating  the  coefficients,  we  obtain  the  following 
numbers  in  a  symmetrical  series: 

10 

45 
120 
210 
252 
210 
120 

45 

10 

This  is  why  the  curve  of  Quetelet  is  called  binomial. 
Let  us  assume  that  we  wish  to  represent  by  means  of  Quetelet's 
curves,  two  seriations,  for  instance  in  regard  to  the  stature  of 
children  of  the  same  race,  sex  and  age,  but  of  opposite  social  con- 
ditions: the  poor  and  the  rich. 

These  two  curves  of  Quetelet's,  provided  that  they  are  based 
upon  an  equal  and  very  large  number  of  individuals,  will  be 
identical,  because  the  law  itself  is  universal.  Only,  the  curve 
for  the  rich  children  will  be  shifted  along  toward  the  figures  for 
high  statures^  and  that  for  the  poor  children  toward  the  low 
statures. 

At  a  certain  point  A  the  two  curves  meet  and  intersect,  each 
invading  the  field  of  the  other:  so  that  within  the  space  ABC 
there  are  individual  rich  children  who  are  shorter  than  some  of 
the  poor,  and  individual  poor  children  who  are  taller  than  some 
of  the  rich:  i.e.,  the  conditions  are  contrary  to  those  generally 
established  by  the  curve  as  a  whole.  This  rule  also,  of  the  inter- 
section of  binomial  curves,  is  of  broad  application;  whenever  a 
general  principle  is  stated,  e.g.  that  the  rich  are  taller  than  the 
poor,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  it  in  a  liberal  sense,  knowing 
that  wherever  we  should  descend  to  details,  the  opposite  con- 
ditions could  be  found  (superimposed  area  ABC).  For  all  that, 
the  principle  as  a  whole  does  not  alter  its  characteristic,  which  is  a 
differentiation  of  diverse  types  (for  example,  the  tall  rich  and  the 
short  poor).  The  same  would  hold  true  if  we  made  a  comparison 
of  the  stature  of  men  and  women;  the  curve  for  men  would  be 
shifted  toward  the  higher  figures  and  that  for  women  toward  the 
lower,  but  there  would  be  a  point  where  the  two  curves  would  inter- 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY 


401 


sect,  and  in  the  triangle  ABC  there  would  be  women  taller  than 
some  of  the  men,  and  men  shorter  than  some  of  the  women.  The 
differences  have  reference  to  the  numerical  majority  (the  high 
portions  of  the  curves)  which  are  clearly  separated  from  each 
other,  like  the  tops  of  cypress  trees  which  have  roots  interlacing 
in  the  earth.  Now,  it  is  the  numerical  prevalence  of  individuals, 
in  any  mixed  community,  that  gives  that  community  its  distinctive 
type,  whether  of  class  or  of  race.  If  we  see  gathered  together  in  a 
socialistic  assemblage  a  proletarian  crowd,  suffering  from  the 
affects  of  pauperism,  the  majority  of  the  individuals  have  stooping 


->  Statures      m          >  focending  Series) 


FIG.  155. 

shoulders,  ugly  faces  and  pallid  complexions;  all  this  gives  to  the 
crowd  a  general  aspect,  one  might  say,  of  physical  inferiority. 
And  we  say  that  this  is  the  type  of  the  labouring  class  of  our  epoch 
in  which  labour  is  proletarian — a  type  of  caste.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  we  go  to  a  court  ball,  what  strikes  us  is  the  numerical  prevalence 
of  tall,  distinguished  persons,  finely  shaped,  with  velvety  skin  and 
delicate  and  beautiful  facial  lineaments,  so  that  we  recognise 
that  the  assemblage  is  composed  of  privileged  persons,  constituting 
the  type  of  the  aristocratic  class.  But  this  does  not  alter  the 
fact  that  among  the  proletariat  there  may  be  some  handsome 
persons,  well  developed,  robust  and  quite  worthy  of  being  con- 
founded with  the  privileged  class;  and  conversely,  among  the 
aristocrats,  certain  undersized  individuals,  sad  and  emaciated, 


402  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

with  stooping  shoulders  and  features  of  inferior  type,  who  seem  to 
belong  to  the  lower  social  classes. 

For  this  same  reason  it  is  difficult  to  give  clear-cut  limits  to  any 
law  and  any  distinction  that  we  meet  in  our  study  of  life.  This 
is  why  it  is  difficult  in  zoology  and  in  botany  to  establish  a  system, 
because  although  every  species  differs  from  the  others,  in  the 
salience  of  its  characteristics  and  the  numerical  prevalence  of 
individuals  very  much  alike,  none  the  less  every  species  grades 
off  so  insensibly  into  others,  through  individuals  of  intermediate 
characteristics,  that  it  is  difficult  to  separate  the  various  species 
sharply  from  one  another.  It  is  only  the  treetops  that  are  separate, 
but  at  their  bases  life  is  intertwined;  and  in  the  roots  there  is  an 
inseparable  unity.  The  same  may  be  said  when  we  wish  to 
differentiate  normality  from  pathology  and  degeneration.  The 
man  who  is  clearly  sane  differs  beyond  doubt  from  the  one  who  is 
profoundly  ill  or  degenerate;  but  certain  individuals  exist  whose 
state  it  would  be  impossible  to  define. 

Now,  while  seriations  analyse  certain  particularities  of  the 
individual  distribution,  by  studying  the  actual  truth,  mean 
averages  give  us  only  an  abstraction,  which  nevertheless  renders 
distinct  what  was  previously  nebulous  and  confused  in  its  true 
particulars.  The  synthesis  of  the  mean  average  brings  home 
to  us  forcibly  the  true  nature  of  the  characteristics  in  their  general 
effect.  The  analysis  of  the  seriation  brings  home  to  us  forcibly 
the  truth  regarding  this  effect  when  we  observe  it  in  the  actuality 
of  individual  cases. 

"When,  from  the  topmost  pinnacle  of  the  Duomo  of  Milan  or 
from  the  hill  of  the  Superga,"  says  Levi  in  felicitious  comparison, 
"we  contemplate  the  magnificent  panorama  of  the  Alpine  chain, 
we  see  the  zone  of  snow  distinguished  from  that  free  from  snow 
by  a  line  that  is  visibly  horizontal  and  that  stretches  evenly 
throughout  the  length  of  the  chain.  But  if  we  enter  into  the 
Alpine  valleys  and  try  to  reach  and  to  touch  the  point  at  which 
the  zone  of  snow  begins,  that  regularity  which  we  previously 
admired  disappears  before  our  eyes;  we  see,  at  one  moment,  a 
snow-clad  peak,  and  at  the  next  another  free  from  snow  that 
either  is  or  seems  to  be  higher  than  the  former." 

Now,  through  the  statistics  of  mean  averages,  we  are  able  to 
see  the  general  progress  of  phenomena,  like  the  spectator  who 
gazes  from  a  distance  at  the  Alpine  chain  and  concludes  that  the 


STATISTICAL  METHODOLOGY  403 

zone  of  snow  is  above  and  the  open  ground  is  below;  while,  by 
means  of  seriation,  we  are  in  the  position  of  the  person  who  has 
entered  the  valley  and  discovers  the  actuality  of  the  particular 
details  which  go  to  make  up  the  uniform  aspect  of  the  scene  as  a 
whole.  Both  aspects  are  true — just  as  both  of  those  statistical 
methods  are  useful — for  they  reciprocally  complete  each  other, 
concurring  in  revealing  to  us  the  laws  and  the  phenomena  of 
anthropology. 


CHAPTER  IX 

BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL  AND  HIS  ANTECEDENTS 

The  child,  like  every  other  individual,  represents  an  effect  of 
multifold  causes:  he  is  a  product  of  heredity  (biological  product) 
and  a  product  of  society  (social  product).  The  characteristics 
of  his  ancestors,  their  maladies,  their  vices,  their  degeneration, 
live  again  in  the  result  of  the  conception  which  has  produced  a  new 
indivdual:  and  this  individual,  whether  stronger  or  weaker, 
must  pass  through  various  obstacles  in  the  course  of  his  intra- 
uterine  life  and  his  external  life.  The  sufferings  and  the  mistakes 
of  his  mother  are  reflected  in  him.  The  maladies  which  attack 
him  may  leave  upon  him  permanent  traces.  Finally,  the  social 
environment  receives  the  child  at  birth,  either  as  a  favoured  son 
or  as  an  unfortunate,  and  leads  him  through  paths  that  certainly 
must  influence  his  complex  development. 

All  of  the  preceding  and  theoretic  parts  of  this  volume  which 
took  up  each  characteristic  for  separate  consideration,  have  already 
explained  all  that  it  is  necessary  to  know  in  order  to  interpret  the 
characteristics  present  in  a  given  individual,  and  the  more  or  less 
remote  causes  which  contributed  to  them. 

We-  may  now  apply  our  acquired  knowledge  to  individual 
study,  by  making  investigations  into  the  antecedents  of  the  child 
and  recording  his  biographic  history.  It  forms  a  parallel  to  the 
clinical  history  which  is  recorded  in  medicine:  and  it  leads  to  a 
diagnosis,  or  at  least  to  a  scientific  judgment  regarding  the  child. 

Although  this  biographic  part  is  eminently  practical,  certain  principal  points 
of  research  may  be  indicated  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the  student.  But  no 
one  will  ever  make  a  successful  study  of  medical  pedagogy  unless  he  will  follow 
the  practical  lessons  dedicated  to  the  individual  study  of  the  scholar,  and  make 
a  practice  of  personal  observation.  In  the  Pedagogical  School  of  Rome,  we  pro- 
vide subjects,  taken  from  the  elementary  schools  or  from  the  Asylum  School  of 
De  Sanctis  for  defective  children.  And  we  read  their  biographical  history  in 
regard  to  their  antecedents,  and  then  make  an  objective  examination  of  them, 
frequently  extending  it  to  an  examination  of  their  sensibility  and  their  psychic 

404 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        405 

conditions  and  enquiring  into  their  standard  of  scholarship.  From  these  lessons 
based  upon  theory,  profitable  discussions  often  result;  and  they  certainly  are  the 
most  profitable  lessons  in  the  course. 

A  biographical  history  is  essentially  composed  of  three  parts: 
the  antecedents,  which  comprises  an  investigation  of  the  facts 
antedating  the  individual  in  question;  the  objective  examination, 
which  studies  the  individual  personally;  and  the  diaries,  i.e.,  the 
continued  observation  of  the  same  individual  who  has  already 
been  studied  in  regard  to  himself  and  his  antecedents. 

The  objective  examination  and  the  diaries  cannot  be  considered 
solely  in  the  light  of  anthropology,  because  they  chiefly  require 
the  aid  of  psychology.  But  even  anthropology  makes  an  ample 
and  important  contribution,  first,  in  the  form  of  an  objective 
morphological  examination,  the  vast  importance  of  which  has 
already  been  shown;  secondly,  because  it  gives  us  a  picture  of  the 
biologico-social  personality  which  it  is  necessary  to  compare 
with  the  reactions  of  the  subject  in  question,  with  his  psychic 
manifestations,  his  degree  of  culture,  etc. ;  and  upon  this  compari- 
son depends  the  chief  importance  of  the  individual  study  of  the 
pupil. 

Accordingly,  in  addition  to  an  examination  of  the  individual, 
anthropology  ought  to  concern  itself  also  with  the  conditions 
antedating  the  individual;  therefore,  it  traces  back  to  the 
origins  (antecedents),  while  psychology  reserves  for  itself  the 
principal  task  of  following  the  psychological  development  of  the 
subject  in  his  school  life  (diaries) ;  a  task  in  which  it  will  neverthe- 
less go  hand  in  hand  with  anthropology  since  the  latter  must 
follow  at  the  same  time  the  physiomorphological  development 
of  the  subject  himself. 

Accordingly,  the  gathering  of  antecedent  statistics  is  the  task 
of  anthropology.  The  antecedent  statistics  may  be  called  the 
history  of  the  genesis  of  the  individual;  the  manner  of  collecting 
them  is  by  means  of  enquiries  that  are  generally  made  of  the  child's 
nearest  relations  (the  mother)  or  of  the  teachers  who  have  super- 
intended his  previous  education.  The  enquiries  are  conducted 
under  the  guidance  of  a  certain  system  of  which  we  give  the  follow- 
ing outline: 


406 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


biopathological. 


remote  J    ascendant 
collateral 


mother 


child.. 


conception 
pregnancy 
delivery 
lactation 

(dentition 
locomotion 
speech 
maladies  incurred 


maternal  opinions 
of  child 


character 

intelligence 

etc. 


sociological .... 
school  record  . 


I  vocation  of  parents 

their  morality 

their  culture 

their  care  of  their  children 

opinions  of  teachers,  history  of  previous  schooling. 


We  may  distinguish  biopathological  antecedents,  which  have 
regard  to  the  organism  of  the  child  as  a  living  individual;  socio- 
logical antecedents,  having  regard  to  the  social  environment  in 
which  the  child  has  grown  up  and  which  contributes  to  the  forma- 
tion of  his  psychophysical  personality;  and  scholastic  antecedents 
or  scholarship,  regarding  the  previous  schooling  of  the  child  under 
examination.  The  biopathological  antecedents  are  certainly  of 
fundamental  importance.  They  are  called  remote  when  we  refer 
to  the  hereditary  antecedents  of  the  subject,  and  near  when  we 
have  reference  to  his  personal  antecedents. 

Remote  Antecedents. — These  include  an  investigation  regard- 
ing the  ancestors,  the  brothers  and  sisters,  and  the  collateral 
relations.  The  age  of  the  parents  (since  we  know  that  too  imma- 
ture or  too  advanced  an  age,  or  a  disparity  in  age  between  the 
parents  may  result  in  the  birth  of  weak  children).  Degree  of 
relationship  between  the  parents  (since  we  know  that  the  offspring 
of  parents  related  to  each  other  may  be  weak).  Maladies  incurred 
by  them  or  prevalent  in  their  families,  incidental  vices  of  the 
parent  (since  we  know  that  constitutional  maladies,  such  as 
syphilis,  tuberculosis,  gout,  pellagra,  malaria,  mental  and  nervous 
diseases,  etc.,  alcoholism  or  an  irregular  life  of  excesses,  may  lead 
to  the  procreation  of  degenerates).  Furthermore,  since  it  is  known 
that  according  to  the  laws  of  collateral  heredity,  maladies  may 
reappear  in  nephews  which  previously  occurred  in  uncles  and  not 
in  the  parents,  information  should  be  sought,  so  far  as  possible, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        407 

from  all  members  of  the  family.  Information  regarding  the 
brothers  of  the  subject  offers  an  interest  of  a  very  particular  kind, 
because  this  gives  us  an  insight  into  the  generative  capacity  of  the 
parents:  for  instance,  if  there  were  abortions,  children  who  died 
at  an  early  age  of  convulsions,  meningitis,  etc.,  this  argues  unfa- 
vourably for  the  normality  of  the  subject. 

Near  Biopathological  Antecedents :  Mother,  Child. — Our  in- 
quiries should  centre  first  of  all  upon  the  mother,  in  order  to  know 
the  conditions  of  conception,  pregnancy,  delivery  and  lactation, 
in  the  case  of  the  child  under  examination,  because  we  know  that 
frequently  an  error  at  the  time  of  conception  may  produce  a 
degenerate  or  a  weakling.  For  example,  a  child  generated  in  a 
state  of  physical  or  mental  exhaustion — e.g.,  after  a  long  trip  on  a 
bicycle,  or  after  passing  an  examination — may^be  born  feeble, 
predisposed  to  nervous  diseases  (idiocy,  meningitis),  just  as  he 
may  be  born  abnormal  (epilepsy,  anomalies  of  character,  criminal 
tendencies)  if  generated  by  the  father  during  an  alcoholic  excees, 
or  by  the  mother  while  suffering  from  hypocondria,  illness,  etc. 
The  history  of  the  pregnancy  is  also  of  interest:  whether  it  pro- 
ceeded regularly  to  the  close  of  the  nine  months,  whether  the 
mother  suffered  especially  from  mental  anxiety,  illness  or  received 
any  blow  on  the  abdomen. 

Other  causes  which  may  affect  the  health  of  the  child  have 
reference  to  birth  and  to  lactation.  If  the  delivery  requires  an 
operation,  it  may,  for  instance,  deform  the  skull;  while  a  hired 
wet-nurse,  or  artificial  feeding  are  more  or  less  apt  to  cause  deteri- 
oration in  the  child. 

Having  completed  this  first  enquiry,  we  pass  on  to  consider  the 
child  itself,  from  the  time  of  birth  onward,  lingering  especially 
over  its  early  development  and  more  particularly  over  the  cutting 
of  the  teeth,  learning  to  walk  and  learning  to  speak,  which  are  the 
three  first  obstacles  to  infantile  development.  The  healthy  child 
overcomes  ^them  according  to  normal  laws,  while  the  child  of  tardy 
development  shows  the  first  characteristic  anomaly  in  these 
three  fundamental  points  of  its  early  existence  (tardiness  of 
development,  incomplete  and  defective  development,  develop- 
ment accompanied  by  diseases,  etc.). 

Usually  a  tardiness  in  the  development  of  the  teeth  denotes 
general  weakness  and  more  especially  skeletal  weakness  (rachitis, 
syphilis);  tardiness  in  learning  to  walk  may  occur  in  connection 


7 


408  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

with  the  above-named  causes  (weakness  of  the  lower  limbs); 
or  with  difficulty  in  attaining  an  equilibrium  (of  cerebral  origin; 
witness  the  case  of  idiots  who,  without  being  paralytic,  cannot 
walk,  because  they  cannot  learn  how  to  walk);  or  with  paresis, 
more  or  less  partial  or  diffused,  of  the  muscles  controlling  the  act 
of  walking  (infantile  paralysis,  Little's  disease,  etc.).  A  tardy 
development  of  speech  is  sometimes  found  together  with  a  notable 
intellectual  development  and  the  child  will  not  begin  to  speak 
until  he  can  express  thoughts  and  speak  well ;  but  more  frequently 
such  delayed  development  is  due  to  partial  deafness;  or  it  originates 
in  the  association  centres  of  the  brain  (the  idiot  child  cannot  learn 
to  speak). 

It  will  also  be  helpful  to  know  whether  the  child  was  ever  ill. 
It  is  very  important  in  this  connection  to  find  out  whether  the 
child  ever  suffered  from  infantile  eclampsia  in  early  life  (convul- 
sions, or  "fits"  as  the  mothers  of  the  lower  classes  call  them). 
This  is  an  indication  of  a  cerebral  malady  which  leaves  behind  it 
permanent  alterations  of  the  brain  and  of  its  functions.  The 
child  may  be  an  idiot,  or  may  belong  to  one  of  the  various  cata- 
gories  of  children  who  go  under  the  name  of  defectives;  or  he  may 
be  abnormal  in  character  (cerebroplegic  forms).  Another  impor- 
tant fact  to  record  is  nocturnal  enuresis  (loss  of  urine  during  sleep 
subsequent  to  the  normal  age) ;  this  is  considered  by  some  authori- 
ties as  a  pre-epileptic  state — that  is,  a  child  that  suffers  such  losses 
may  in  the  future  become  subject  to  epilepsy,  and  quite  probably, 
if  studied,  will  show  various  anomalies  of  the  nervous  system, 
such,  for  example,  ajLtoo  deepjalfifift,,  slowness  of  intelligence,  etc. 
Repeated  attacks  of  infective  diseases,  even  though  they  are  sur- 
vived, also  denote  organic  weakness,  with  facile  predisposition  to 
infective  agencies — in  other  words,  deficient  powers  of  immunity. 

Prolonged  intestinal  maladies  or  typhus  in  the  early  months 
(denutrition  from  pathological  causes,  exhaustive  diseases)  may, 
in  themselves,  be  the  cause  of  the  child's  enfeeblement  and  its 
consequent  arrest  in  development. 

But  in  the  interpretation  of  such  observations,  the  physician 
should  be  the  guide  and  the  direct  judge. 

The  most  salient  symptoms  in  regard  to  the  child — intelligence, 
conduct,  character,  endurance,  etc. — are,  for  the  most  part, 
expressed  with  great  clearness  by  the  mothers.  Prof.  De  Sanctis, 
for  example,  has  noted  that  the  mother's  first  words  might  serve 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        409 

the  purpose  of  a  diagnosis;  for  instance,  the  mother  says  of  an 
idiot  child:  "he  doesn't  understand,"  of  a  child  retarded  in  develop- 
ment, "he  is  stupid,"  of  an  abnormal  child,  "he  understands  but 
he  is  bad."  Accordingly,  Prof.  De  Sanctis  begins  his  diagnostic 
researches  by  registering  the  maternal  judgments,  because  the 
mother  is  struck  by  the  salient  characteristics  of  her  child ;  and  even 
if  she  is  uneducated  she  always  finds  concise  and  effective  phrases 
to  express  her  judgment. 

To  the  end  of  rendering  the  research  into  antecedents  surer 
and  more  complete  so  far  as  regards  the  personal  antecedents 
of  the  child,  certain  anthropological  tablets  are  being  introduced 
to  serve  as  maternal  diaries.  In  this  way  the  mothers  have  a  guide 
for  studying  their  children,  and  this  forms  one  of  the  first  practical 
attempts  toward  the  "education  of  the  mothers." 

Here  is  a  form  of  chart  for  keeping  a  record  of  the  dentition. 
The  significance  of  the  letters  is  as  follows: 

U.  r.:  upper  right,  i.e.,  the  right  half  of  the  upper  jaw. 
U.  I.  :  upper  left. 
L.  r. :  lower  right. 

L.  I.  :  lower  left.     (The  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in 
the  first  dentition  there  are  twenty  teeth.) 


410 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

FIRST  DENTITION 


Teeth 

Dates 

Observations 

of  first 
appearance 

of  complete 
development 

of 
shedding 

U.  r.    1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

U.I.    1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

L.  r.     1 

2 

3 

.. 

4 

5 

L.  1.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

In  this  way  we  have  an  analytical  and  exact  chart  of  the 
development  of  the  teeth.  Analogous  tables  are  made  for  the 
second  dentition,  for  the  growth  of  the  stature,  for  increase  in 
weight,  for  certain  physiological  notes,  etc.  When  the  first 
period  of  growth  is  ended,  the  mother's  note-books  contain  annual 
notes,  like  the  following: 

YEAR  190. . 


Date 

1 

• 

"-5 

February 

^3 

0 

i 

s 

°E 
a, 

< 

% 

§ 

QJ 

a 

3 
i-s 

>> 
3 

<-> 

*j 

00 
bC 

«5 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Weight  

Stature  

BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        411 

Special  annual  diaries  are  now  employed  for  keeping  a  minute 
record  of  maladies  incurred,  symptoms,  treatment,  etc. 

These  note-books,  similar  to  those  hitherto  kept  by  ladies  for 
their  house  accounts,  or  for  sentimental  notes,  would  be  of  great 
service  and  aid  to  pedagogic  anthropology,  even  though  their 
use  could  not  be  extended  to  all  mothers  (the  mothers  of  the 
proletariat,  immoral  women,  etc.,  either  could  not  or  would  not 
give  similar  contributions).  The  institution  of  "Children's 
Houses,"  if  more  widespread,  could  easily  facilitate  the  education 
of  the  mothers  and  the  diffusion  of  "Maternal  Note-books "  through- 
out all  grades  of  society.  But  at  most  these  mother's  diaries 
furnish  us  only  with  notes  of  the  near  antecedents  and  not  of  the 
remote,  which  are  of  extreme  importance. 

Sociological  Antecedents:  Vocation,  Morality,  Culture. — Be- 
fore all  else,  in  inquiring  into  the  sociological  antecedents,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  in  what  sort  of  an  environment  the  child  has 
grown,  and  whether  it  is  an  environment  favorable,  or  otherwise, 
to  his  physical,  psychic,  intellectual  and  moral  development. 
This  is  an  exceedingly  important  matter  to  determine  for  the 
purposes  of  a  clinical  history,  since  the  child's  moral  conduct 
and  the  profit  derived  from  study  depend  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  environment  in  which  the  child  has  grown  and  lived.  To 
this  end  inquiries  should  be  made  into  the  economic  circumstances 
of  the  child's  parents,  then1  vocation,  moral  standards  and  degree 
of  education,  and  also  into  the  child's  mode  of  life,  whether  with 
the  parents  or  other  relations,  or  with  persons  not  related  to 
him,  whether  he  plays  in  the  street,  keeps  company  with  street 
children,  etc. 

School  Record:  Judgments  of  Teachers. — This  is  the  history 
of  the  pupil  as  made  by  his  teachers,  beginning  with  the  first  day 
that  he  enters  school.  The  judgments  of  teachers,  although  not 
always  so  precise  and  so  fair  as  those  of  mothers,  nevertheless 
have  an  importance  of  their  own.  Inquiry  should  be  made  into 
the  child's  conduct  in  school  and  the  profit  he  derives  from  his 
studies. 

Illustrative  Cases. — There  are,  for  example,  certain  families 
so  infected  with  a  degenerative  or  pathological  taint  that  the 
remote  antecedents  are  sufficient  in  themselves  to  stigmatise  the 
biological  condition  of  an  abnormal  subject.  This  may  be  seen  in 
the  genealogy  of  the  Misdea  family  (taken  from  Lombroso's  work) : 


412 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Grandfather:  MICHELE  MISDEA 
(Not  very  intelligent,  but  very  active) 


1 

1st  uncle 

2nd  uncle 

3d  uncle 

1 
4th  uncle 

Misdea    the 

Guiseppe 

Domenico 

Cosimo 

Michele 

father     (alcoholic, 

(imbecile) 

(eccentric 

(quick- 

(semi- 

spendthrift,    mar- 

and 

tempered, 

imbecile) 

ried  to  an  hyster- 

violent) 

killed   in   a 

ical    woman,    one 

quarrel) 

of  whose  brothers 

was  a  brigand  and 

another  a  thief). 

1st  cousin 

2d  cousin 

3d  cousin 

4th  cousin 

(idiot) 

(madman) 

(imbecile) 

(imbecile) 

1st  brother 

2d  brother 

3d  brother 

4th  brother 

5th  brother 

Cosimo 

Salvatore 

(sane) 

(alcoholic) 

(incorrigible) 

(obscene,  epilep-      Misdea 
tic,    drunkard, 
convicted     of 
assault). 

I 
grandson 

(obscene) 

Similarly  extraordinary  is  the  genealogy  of  Ada  Tiircker,  an 
alcoholic,  thief  and  vagabond,  born  in  1740,  a  large  part  of  whose 
numerous  descendants  it  has  been  possible  to  trace.  Out  of  the 
834  individuals  derived  from  this  degenerate  woman,  the  lives  of 
no  less  than  709  have  been  followed  up,  and  among  these  are 
included  143  mendicants,  64  inmates  of  asylums,  181  prostitutes, 
69  criminals,  and  7  murderers,  who  altogether  cost  the  state  up- 
ward of  seven  million  francs! 

Besides  families  like  these  there  are  others  infected  with  a 
pathological  taint,  in  which .  phthisis  and  gout  alternate  with 
epilepsy  and  insanity.  Then  again  there  are  other  families  in 
which  the  pathological  taint  is  scarcely  perceptible,  as  for  example, 
the  family  of  an  epileptic  child  with  criminal  tendencies,  person- 
ally studied  by  me;  all  the  members  of  this  family  are  long-lived 
and  enjoy  good  health;  the  father  alone  is  a  sufferer  from  articular 
rheumatism.  Lastly  there  are  families  in  which  there  is  no  sign 
of  pathological  or  degenerative  weakness;  and  in  such  cases  we 
say  that  there  is  nothing  noteworthy  in  the  genealogy,  and  the  near 
antecedents  assume  the  highest  degree  of  importance. 

The  study  of  antecedents  not  only  has  a  scientific  importance, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        413 

in  so  far  as  it  contributes  to  a  knowledge  of  anthropological  vari- 
eties of  mankind  (due  to  adaptation) ;  but  it  also  has  an  immediate 
pedagogic  importance  through  its  useful  application  to  the  school. 
Lino  Ferriani  is  the  first  jurist  to  investigate  the  antecedents 
of  juvenile  delinquents,  by  gathering  notes  not  only  regarding 
their  parents,  but  also  in  regard  to  their  own  school  standing  (by 
consulting  the  teachers  in  the  schools  where  these  juvenile  crim-1 
inals  received  their  education !).  I  have  extracted  from  his  volume 
on  "Precocious  and  senile  delinquency"  the  following  statistics 
of  the  physico-moral  condition  of  the  parents: 

Convicted  of  crimes  against  property 1,237 

Convicted  of  crimes  against  the  person 543 

Addicted  to  wine 2,006 

Women  leading  meretricious  lives 581 

Doubtful  reputation 1,500 

Very  bad  reputation 670 

Good  reputation 210 

Industrious 1,888 

Semi-idle 4,000 

Idle 2,000 

Sentenced  for  drunkeness 1,590 

Sentenced  for  offences  against  public  morals 240 

Alcoholics 1,001 

Confined  in  lunatic  asylums 48 

Mothers  deflowered  before  the  age  of  15 1,560 

Couples  separated  through  fault  of  the  husband 59 

Couples  separated  through  fault  of  the  wife 69 

Couples  separated  through  fault  of  both  parties 135 

Among  these  notes  there  is  a  numerical  preponderance  of 
idlers  (the  idle  and  semi-idle:  degenerates  are  weaklings  who  can- 
not work  and  who  shun  work;  their  only  form  of  work  is  crime, 
which  is  an  attempt  to  reap  the  fruit  of  other  people's  industry) 
and  alcoholism  (addicted  to  wine,  alcoholics,  and  those  sentenced 
for  drunkenness ;  this  also  is  a  stigma  of  degeneration :  weaklings 
have  recourse  to  alcohol,  because  it  gives  them  an  illusion  of 
strength).  Furthermore,  the  majority  show,  through  crime  and 
prostitution,  that  they  belong  to  the  class  of  social  parasites. 

In  regard  to  the  psycho-physical  characteristics  of  juvenile 
offenders,  Ferriani  gives  these  principal  notes: 

Nervous 1,250 

Habitual  liars 3,000 

Fond  of  wine  and  gluttonous 2,501 

Proud  of  delinquency 2,700 

27 


414  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Blasphemers 3,900 

Cruel  to  animals 2,100 

Excessive  emaciation 1,648 

Long  hands 1,650 

Unreliable  workers 2, 195 

Without  interest  in  life 1,347 

Desirous  of  authority : 1,000 

Scrofulous 700 

Rachitic  and  syphilitic 500 

Vindictive 842 

Timid  and  cowardly 900 

Obscene 900 

Cruel  to  parents 700 

Cruel  to  companions 700 

And  now  we  come  to  the  most  interesting  part  of  all,  namely, 
the  notes  taken  by  teachers' where  these  children  went  to  school. 

Boys. — Age  from  ten  to  twelve  years.  Characteristic  notes  on 
100  children  in  regard  to  bad  conduct: 

Humiliating  poorer  companions 2 

Absolute  refusal  to  obey 4 

Corrupting  companions 4 

Mutilating  books  of  poor  companions 2 

Spirit  of  rebellion 1 

Malicious  and  headstrong 1 

Resentful  of  routine 1 

Stealing  food  at  expense  of  companions 6 

Abnormally  spiteful 4 

Impertinent  answers 7 

Proud  of  inventing  misdeeds 2 

Stealing  from  companions  and  teacher  (school  stationary,  etc.) . .  10 

Calumniating  companions 6 

Desire  to  play  the  spy 8 

Obscene  writings  in  toilet  room 2 

Obscene  writings  in  copy-books '.....  6 

Obscene  actions  in  the  shcool-room 9 

Obscene  writings  on  the  benches 3 

Violence  with  a  weapon  (pen-knife) 2 

Bullying  smaller  boys 12 

Feigning  loss  of  speech  for  a  month,  to  avoid  reciting  lessons ....  1 

Blaspheming 1 

Afraid  of  everything  and  savagely  vindictive 1 

Frequently  absent  from  school,  to  play  games  of  chance 3 

Spirit  of  destruction 1 

Spirit  of  contradiction 1 

Girls. — Age  from  ten  to  twelve  years.  Characteristic  notes 
on  50  children  in  regard  to  bad  conduct: 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        415 

Soiling  the  clothing  of  their  companions 3 

Abnormally  spiteful 2 

Intense  envy 4 

Frequent  absence  from  school,  to  play  games  of  chance 4 

Tyranny 3 

Immoderate  vanity 2 

Spirit  of  rebellion 1 

Insolent  answers 1 

Absolute  intolerance  of  supervision 1 

Damaging  the  school  furniture 2 

Slandering  the  teacher 4 

Slandering  school-mates 6 

Theft,  limited  to  pens 1 

Lascivious  love-letters 4 

Constantly  speaking  ill  of  her  mother 1 

Attempts  to  make  school-mates  unhappy 1 

Unkindness  toward  animals 1 

Unkindness  toward  old  persons 1 

Unkindness  toward  small  children 1 

Obscene  writings  in  the  toilet  room 1 

Harmful  anonymous  letters 1 

Hatred  of  beautiful  things 1 

Spirit  of  contradiction 1 

Corrupting  companions 1 

Thefts  in  school 1 

Mutilating  the  clothing  of  companions 1 

The  prevailing  faults  among  the  boys  are:  theft,  obscene 
actions,  tyranny  over  the  weak;  and  among  the  girls:  slander, 
extreme  envy  and  lascivious  love-letters. 

If  we  compare  the  notes  regarding  the  parents  with  those 
relating  to  the  children,  we  find  a  connection  amounting  to  that 
of  cause  and  effect.  We  might  almost  say  that  the  phenomenon 
revealed  to  us  in  school  through  the  teachers'  notes  concerns 
not  so  much  the  pupil  himself  as  his  past  history.  To  keep  this 
sort  of  record  of  misconduct,  so  damnatory  to  the  pupils  in  ques- 
tion, would  be  worse  than  useless,  if  we  were  unable  to  trace  back 
their  source  to  the  presumable  causes  which  determined  them. 
There  is  an  intimate  relation  between  the  environment  and  the 
products  of  that  environment.  If  we  should  read  the  notes  relat- 
ing to  the  children  who  receive  prizes  for  good  conduct,  and  who 
are  held  up  as  moral  examples,  we  could  trace  back  and  find  the 
cause  of  these  notes  in  a  favourable  family  environment;  hence, 
the  qualities  which  we  praise  in  the  child  are  not  a  merit  peculiar 
to  the  child,  but  are  due  to  causes,  of  which  the  pupil  himself  is 
merely  the  fortunate  epilogue. 


416  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

And  passing  from  studies  taken  from  works  of  criminal  anthro- 
pology to  examples  contained  in  works  of  pedagogic  anthropology 
(these  works  all  being  based  upon  the  same  scientific  standards), 
I  am  happy  to  cite  a  work  which  has  even  earned  the  praise  of 
Lombroso:  Notes  on  Infantile  Psycho-physiology,  written  by 
Professor  Calcagni. 

Notwithstanding  that  this  book  of  Menotti  Calcagni's  is 
inspired  by  the  most  advanced  pedagogic  conceptions,  so  that 
it  well  deserves  to  be  cited  in  its  entirety  with  much  profit,  I  shall 
avail  myself  only  of  the  part  which  particularly  interests  me  at 
the  present  moment.  It  is  the  part  containing  the  data  collected 
and  arranged  by  the  author  in  a  series  of  tables,  in  the  form  of  a 
brief  clinical  history,  of  each  pupil  in  the  class  studied  by  the 
author. 

I  shall  pass  over  the  statistical  tables  concerning  the  personal 
examination  of  the  pupils  (anthropological,  physiological,  etc.), 
and  confine  myself  to  just  two  tables:  one  in  regard  to  the  exami- 
nation into  the  pupil's  antecedents  (name  and  surname;  day  of 
birth;  place  of  birth;  age  of  father;  age  of  mother;  vocation  of 
father;  vocation  of  mother;  conditions  of  home  environment, 
hygienic,  economic  and  moral;  conditions  of  other  members  of  the 
family;  maladies  and  casualties  incurred  by  the  parents  before  and 
after  the  procreation  of  the  child;  defects  and  vices  of  parents,  and 
details  regarding  their  psychic  constitutions;  conditions  and  acci- 
dents during  pregnancy,  birth  and  puerperal  period;  illnesses  in- 
curred by  the  child);  the  other  in  regard  to  the  pupil's  previous 
school  record  (name  and  surname;  pupils  enrolled  at  beginning  of 
the  year;  those  transferred  to  other  classes;  those  promoted  with- 
out examination;  those  promoted  after  examination;  those  per- 
mitted a  second  trial;  those  not  admitted  to  examination;  those 
dropped  from  their  class,  and  for  how  many  different  years).  I 
select  from  these  the  notes  referring  to  the  children  promoted  with- 
out examination  and  those  not  admitted  to  examination;  i.e.,  the 
privileged  ones  before  whom  an  obstacle  has  been  withdrawn  which 
the  majority  must  surmount  before  continuing  on  their  path  in 
life:  go  forward  in  peace,  you  favoured  ones!  and  those  who  are 
not  even  allowed  a  chance  to  overcome  the  obstacle:  turn  back, 
you  to  whom  the  path  of  other  men  is  closed ! 

And  I  read  these  notes  relative  to  those  promoted  without  exam- 
ination: "Father  shoemaker,  Mother  dress-maker,  home  orderly, 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        417 

frugal  and  clean;  brothers  labourers;"-  -"F.  professor  of  chemistry, 
M.  housekeeping,  condition  of  environment  excellent,  brothers 
studious;" — "F.  assistant  engineer,  M.  keeps  house,  conditions 
of  environment  good,  deaths  in  family  from  acute  diseases;" — 
"F.  country  tradesman,  M.  keeps  house,  conditions  of  environ- 
ment excellent,  very  religious  family;" — "F.  man  of  means,  M. 
housekeeping,  conditions  of  environment  excellent,  brothers  stud- 
ious;"— "F.  machinist,  M.  keeps  the  house,  home  somewhat 
damp  because  of  adjoining  garden;  much  anxiety  on  the  part  of  the 
mother  regarding  the  children,  because  her  first  husband  was  a 
consumptive,  and  the  seven  children  she  had  by  him  all  died. 
Children  of  second  marriage  all  healthy;  but  the  pupil  in  question 
frequently  had  attacks  of  fever;" — "F.  cab-driver,  M.  keeps  house, 
economic  and  moral  conditions  satisfactory;" — "F.  antiquarian, 
M.  keeps  house,  condition  good;" — "F.  manager  of  a  lottery 
office,  M.  keeps  house,  economic  conditions  of  the  very  best, 
moral  conditions  good,"  etc. 

And  here  are  a  few  notes  on  the  pupils  not  admitted  to  the  exam- 
inations: "  Father  itinerant  vendor,  Mother  keeps  house,  home 
exceedingly  dirty,  utmost  indifference  regarding  the  children  and 
their  education.  Insufficient  nutriment  for  the  mother  both 
before  and  after  the  child's  birth;" — F.  cobler,  M.  wash- woman, 
poverty,  squalor,  and  indifference,  dwelling  gloomy  and  cramped;" 
— "F.  mason,  M.  dead,  dwelling  gloomy  and  unhealthy,  through 
lack  of  supervision,  Giacinto  often  runs  away  from  home  and 
goes  to  play  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber;  the  mother  died  of  tuber- 
culosis; the  father  is  an  alcoholic;  the  child  was  brought  up  by  a 
wet-nurse,  etc." 

To  recapitulate:  in  the  case  of  children  promoted  without 
examination  there  is  an  absolute  prevalence  of  the  most  favourable 
social  and  biologico-moral  conditions,  while  the  opposite  holds 
true  of  the  children  excluded  from  examinations. 

Finally,  in  my  own  modest  work  on  children  adjudged  to  be 
the  highest  and  the  lowest  in  then*  classes,  I  arrived  at  some  very 
eloquent  conclusions. 

In  the  case  of  children  who  stand  at  the  foot  of  their  class,  the 
prevailing  conditions  are  not  only  an  unhealthy  home  but  an 
over-crowded  one,  with  ten  or  twelve  persons  sleeping  in  a  single 
room.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  case  of  the  children  standing 


418  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

at  the  head  of  their  class,  the  homes  are  for  the  most  part  roomy, 
comfortable,  well-aired  and  hygienic. 

In  regard  to  nutrition,  the  children  who  have  the  lowest 
standing  are  those  who  go  to  school  without  their  breakfast  and 
who  go  from  the  school  to  the  street  without  having  had  their 
luncheon.  Those  who  stand  first,  on  the  contrary,  bring  with  them 
a  luncheon  that  is  sufficient  and  sometimes  over-lavish;  and  after 
school,  they  return  home,  with  the  assurance  that  food,  care  and 
comfort  await  them. 

The  parents  of  these  leaders  of  their  class  belong  nearly  all 
of  them  to  the  liberal  professions  or  the  more  favoured  crafts 
and  trades;  consequently  the  pupils  enjoy  a  more  comfortable 
and  respectable  environment,  a  higher  standard  of  culture,  a 
mother  who  can  aid  them  in  their  lessons,  and  who,  equally 
with  the  father,  watches  with  solicitous  care  over  her  children's 
education. 

The  others,  the  dullest  pupils,  go  at  the  close  of  school  into 
the  street,  or  else — although  fortunately  very  few  of  them  do  so — 
return  directly  to  the  wretchedly  cramped  quarters  that  they  call 
home. 

Consequently  it  is  not  enough  to  recognise  the  fact  that  in 
school  we  have  to  deal  with  the  more  intelligent  pupil  and  the  less 
intelligent,  with  the  moral  and  the  immoral,  the  highest  and  the 
lowest;  these  are  effects,  the  causes  of  which  it  is  our  duty  to  dis- 
cover; and  that  is  what  the  study  of  antecedents  does  for  us. 

Here  begins  the  far-sighted  task  of  the  teacher,  who  no  longer 
praises  the  pupil  who  is  a  product  of  fortunate  causes,  nor  blames 
the  unfortunate  one  heavily  handicapped  by  a  destiny  which 
is  in  no  way  his  fault;  but  he  gives  to  all  an  affectionate  and 
enlightened  care,  designed  to  correct  and  reform  the  reprobates 
and  raise  them  to  the  level  of  the  chosen  few,  thus  working  for 
the  brotherhood  and  the  amelioration  of  all  mankind,  and  devoting 
special  attention  to  those  that  need  it  most. 

The  study  of  antecedents  is  what  contributes  most  to  the 
interpretation  of  personality.  It  is  needful,  however,  that  it 
should  be  sufficiently  thorough;  and  to  this  end  a  certain  order  of 
interrogation  should  be  followed.  Physicians  are  well  acquainted 
with  this  order,  from  the  habit  they  have  acquired  of  taking 
the  antecedents  of  the  patient  in  their  clinical  practice;  but  for 
making  biographic  charts  for  schools,  a  guide  is  needed  for  the  use 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        419 

of  whoever  puts  the  questions.  Besides,  the  biographical  history 
is  based  on  different  principles  from  those  of  the  clinical  history 
(e.g.,  the  moral  status  of  the  parents,  their  degree  of  culture,  etc., 
which  are  not  taken  into  consideration,  in  treating  a  patient). 
Consequently,  the  blank  forms  of  biographic  charts  contain 
suggestions  that  are  likely  to  prove  helpful  in  conducting  an 
inquiry  into  antecedents.  Among  such  models,  I  have  selected 
that  of  Pastorello,  because  it  is  one  of  the  most  complete,  and 
also  because  it  was  compiled  by  an  educator  (see  page  420) . 

Nevertheless,  the  inquiry  into  his  antecedents  is  only  a  prepa- 
ration for  the  scientific  study  of  the  pupil  in  his  present  state; 
a  study  which  should  follow  the  pupil  through  his  daily  life  (diaries) 
and  thus  constitute  his  complete  Biographical  History. 

Having  collected  the  antecedent  details,  we  pass  on  to  the 
objective  anthropological  and  psychic  examination  of  the  pupil: 
beginning  with  the  anthropological,  which  it  is  more  important 
to  secure  first;  since  the  psychic  examination  will  produce  better 
results  after  a  prolonged  observation  of  the  subject  (diaries,  school 
records). 

In  the  anthropological  examination  it  is  customary  to  begin 
by  taking  the  principal  measurements  (total  stature,  sitting 
stature,  weight,  thoracic  perimeter,  perimeter  of  the  head,  and 
its  two  maximum  diameters)  which  furnish  the  data  needed  to 
give  a  fundamental  idea  of  the  child's  physiological  constitution 
and  racial  type,  and  to  determine  the  normality  of  his  growth. 
Many  other  measurements  may  be  taken  (spirometry,  dyna- 
mometry),  according  to  the  custom  of  the  school,  and,  in  private 
schools,  according  to  the  object  which  the  Principal  has  in  view, 
in  the  way  of  contributions  to  science.  For  instance,  in  a  school 
for  defectives  the  examinations  as  to  general  sensibility,  speech, 
muscular  strength  have  an  importance  of  the  first  order,  and  equally 
important  is  the  accurate  and  minute  inspection  of  the  different 
organs,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  possible  malformations. 
There  are  various  special  objects  to  be  attained  by  gathering 
anthropological  data,  and  accordingly  every  school  based  upon 
modern  scientific  principles  has  its  own  "Biographical  Chart" 
drawn  up  according  to  special  forms  containing  the  necessary 
measurements  and  observations,  and  the  examiner  has  only  to  fol- 
low the  directions  of  this  guide  and  to  fill  in  the  required  informa- 
tion obtained  from  the  individual  pupil. 


420 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


INQUIRY  INTO     ANTECEDENTS  IN  PASTORELLO'S  BIOGRAPHIC 

CHART 


General  Information  Regarding  Pupil's  Family 

NAME  AND  SURNAME  OF  PARENTS 
Father  ;  .  . 

EMPLOYMENT 
Father  . 

Mother  

Mother  

What    degree  of  relationship,   if  any, 
exists  between  the  parents'!             .  . 

ANCESTRY 
Father  

At    what    age  did    the  parents  contract 

How  old  were  the  parents  at  the  time  of 

^l,~   «I,»7J'o  k/,V/J,9 

Mother  

STATE  OF  HEALTH 
Father  

MORAL  AND  FINANCIAL  CONDITION 
OP  THE  PUPIL'S  FAMILY 

Mother  

From  what  diseases  have  the   relatives 
of  the  pupil  died?.                 .            .  . 

Is   the  family   interested  in    the   edu- 

Have there  been  any  predominant  dis- 
eases in  the  family?  .          .    . 

cation  of  the  children  ?  

EDUCATION 
Father  

FAMILY  HABITS,  ECCENTRICITIES 
AND  VICES 

Mother. 

BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        421 


Here,  for  instance,  is  the  anthropological  form  used  in  the  great 
orphan  asylum  in  New  York: 

NEW  YORK  JUVENILE  ASYLUM 
ANTHROPOLOGICAL  EXAMINATION  AND  MEASUREMENTS. — No.  of  page 


Date  of  entrance 

Sex 

Age 

Date  of  birth 

Name 

Total  stature 

Sitting  stature 

Total  spread  of  arms 

Weight 

Prehensile  strength,  right  hand 

Prehensile  strength,  left  hand 

Power  of  traction 

Antero-posterior  diameter 
Transverse  diameter 

Maximum  circumference  of  head 

Maximum  antero-posterior  diameter 

Maximum  transverse  diameter 


Thorax 


Minimum  frontal  diameter 

Height  of  head 

Inspection:  cranium 

Face 

Eyes 

Ears 

Gums 

Teeth 

Palate 

Uvula 

Strabismus 

Limbs 

Body 

Genitals 

Lung 

Heart 

Special  notes 


This  form  has  signs  of  modernity:  in  fact,  it  concedes  the  greater 
part  of  the  research  that  is  to  be  made  in  the  first  objective  exami- 
nation to  anthropological  observations,  limiting  the  observations 
of  a  physiological  nature  to  those  of  muscular  strength — it  being 
well  known  that  all  functions  in  general,  and  especially  the  psychic 
functions,  cannot  be  determined  with  reliable  accuracy  except  after 
repeated  and  prolonged  observations.  Furthermore,  the  modern 
tendency  in  anthropologic  research  is  revealed  by  the  preference 
given  to  measurements  of  the  body  in  its  entirety,  giving  first  place 
to  those  of  the  bust  and  limbs,  from  which  the  important  ratio 
of  their  development  is  obtained  (standing  and  sitting  stature, 
total  spread  of  the  arms),  and  the  weight.  Furthermore,  there  is 
a  notable  absence  of  measurements  of  the  face,  measurements  which 
it  is  the  modern  tendency  to  abandon  where  the  subjects  of  research 
are  children,  since  in  this  case  they  have  no  physiological  or  eth- 
nical importance,  because  the  face  of  the  child  varies  from  year  to 
year,  and  has  no  fixed  index  like  that  of  the  cranium.  A  study  of 
the  facial  measurements  might  be  of  importance  as  contributing 


422       PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

to  a  knowledge  of  the  evolution  of  the  face  through  successive 
years;  but  such  knowledge  can  be  obtained,  so  far  as  is  needed, 
from  "special  studies  and  researches,"  without  making  obligatory 
a  form  of  research  that  is  both  troublesome  and  dangerous  (the 
application  of  pointed  instruments  to  the  faces  of  children).  The 
best  method  of  examining  the  face  is  by  photographing  the  full 
face  and  the  profile  at  intervals  of  one  year.  Accordingly,  the 
biographic  form  used  in  the  " Children's  Houses"  contains  only 
questions  of  an  anthropologic  nature  of  importance  in  relation 
to  growth  (see  the  form  of  the  Biographic  Chart  of  the  "  Children's 
Houses,"  page  423). 

The  greatest  importance  attaches  to  the  stature  and  weight. 
Indeed,  while  all  the  required  measurements  are  taken  once  a  year 
on  the  occasion  of  the  child's  birthday,  the  total  stature  and  the 
weight  are  taken  once  a  month  upon  the  day  of  that  month  corre- 
sponding to  the  child's  birthday.  The  numerous  other  physio- 
pathological  and  psychic  notes,  the  examination  in  regard  to  speech, 
etc.,  are  obtained  partly  from  the  diaries  and  partly  from  the  physi- 
cian, according  to  the  necessities  of  individual  cases. 

The  photograph  should  complete  the  examination  of  the  pupil. 
The  methods  of  observation  adopted  in  the  "Children's  Houses" 
represent,  I  think,  the  ideal  method  for  the  accurate  recording  of 
individual  characteristics.  Since  the  pedagogical  methods  there 
employed  are  themselves  founded  upon  the  "spontaneity "of  the 
manifestations  of  children,  it  may  be  said  that  they  represent  the 
technical  and  rational  means  of  proceeding  to  a  psychic  examina- 
tion of  the  child. 

I  cannot  linger  upon  this  point,  because  the  question  deserves 
a  special  investigation;  but  it  must  suffice  to  point  out  that  in  order 
to  render  biographic  charts  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  manage- 
ment of  schools,  so  as  to  offer  a  real  aid  to  the  teacher  and  not 
to  have  them  mean  to  her  (as  happens  to-day  only  too  frequently!), 
"just  so  much  more  ,work,"  the  immediate  utility  of  which  is 
doubtful,  it  is  essential  that  the  pedagogic  methods  of  instruction 
should  be  changed. 

So  long  as  a  child  is  required  to  perform  certain  definite  acts,  he 
will  reveal  nothing  of  himself  beyond  responding,  in  so  far  as  he 
is  capable,  to  the  requirements  of  his  environment;  and  any  at- 
tempt to  make  psychological  deductions  from  such  response  would 
contain  profound  errors. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        423 


No. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL  FORM 

USED  IN  THE  "CHILDREN'S  HOUSES,"  IN  ROME  AND  MILAN 
Date  of  Enrollment 


Name  and  Surname Age 

Name  of  Parents Age:  M F '. 

Vocation 

Hereditary  Antecedents 


Personal  Antecedents. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL  NOTES 


Cranium 

Total 
stature 

Weight 

Thoracic 
circumf. 

Essen- 
tial 
stature 

Index 
of 
stature 

Pon- 
deral 
index 

1 

3 
a 

OH     Q 

1      o3 

is 

§  .2 

0 

'"%  £ 

n1 

03  TJ 

£  -3 

&  .2 

U 

H 

o 

Physical  constitution . . 
Muscular  development . 
Color  of  complexion . . 
Color  of  hair 


NOTES 


Nevertheless,  .the  earlier  forms  of  biographic  charts,  and  even 
the  modern  ones  in  general  use  in  Italy  (!)  frequently  contain 
minute  requirements  for  psychic  examination  in  relation  to  such 
points  as  memory,  attention,  perception  and  intelligence. 

And  even  less  satisfactory  are  the  requirements  in  the  charts 
regarding  the  examination  for  sensibility — namely,  ability  to 
distinguish  colours,  sense  of  touch,  smell,  etc.;  because  the  peda- 


424 

gogic  methods  in  vogue  in  school  (and  this  applies  to-day  to  all 
our  schools)  make  no  provision  for  a  rational  exercise  of  the  senses, 
nor  for  instruction  in  the  nomenclature  relating  to  them.  An 
examination  of  the  senses  for  the  purposes  of  the  biographic 
chart  should  at  most  be  limited  to  a  test  of  their  acuteness,  forming 
an  inquiry  analogous  to  that  of  sensibility  to  pain.  For  an  inquiry 
into  the  power  to  discriminate  between  various  sensations  ceases 
to  be  a  simple  examination  of  the  senses,  and  becomes  a  combined 
test  of  psychic  powers  and  of  the  degree  of  culture  attained  (the 
degree  to  which  the  senses  have  been  trained).  Furthermore,  it 
is  well  known  that  a  psychical  examination  demands  preparation 
on  the  part  of  the  person  to  be  examined,  complete  repose  from  all 
emotion,  isolation  of  the  senses,  etc.,  the  preparation  depending 
upon  the  special  research  which  it  is  desired  to  make;  all  of  which 
is  absolutely  opposed  to  the  aggressiveness  of  the  tumultuous  ex- 
amination conducted  by  an  investigator  whose  chief  aim  is  to  fill 
in  the  blanks  upon  the  biographic  charts.  The  psychic  examina- 
tion of  a  pupil  is  a  task  to  be  accomplished  slowly,  by  watching 
the  child's  behaviour,  in  the  course  of  its  daily  life  under  the  eye 
of  an  intelligent  and  trained  observer. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  especially  in  schools 
for  defective  children,  to  form  at  once  a  comprehensive  first  im- 
pression of  the  psychic  condition  of  a  given  child;  it  furnishes  the 
observer  with  a  needed  point  of  departure,  and  abridges  the  long 
and  difficult  task  of  a  psychological  study  of  the  pupil,  to  be  made 
in  the  course  of  the  ensuing  year.  In  such  a  case,  the  biographical 
form  should  not  contain  such  general  topics  as  the  following: 

Memory, 

Sense  of  place  and  time, 

Judgment, 

Moral  sense,  etc., 

but  a  series  of  very  simple  questions  to  be  put  by  the  examiner  to 
the  pupil,  the  replies  to  which  must  be  recorded  accurately,  with- 
out alteration  in  any  manner,  but  reproducing  their  incorrectness 
of  speech,  their  hesitations,  etc.  In  this  way  such  a  form  of  in- 
quiry constitutes  not  only  a  first  psychical  examination,  but  also 
a  first  examination  as  to  defects  of  speech,  which  is  of  much  value 
and  reproduces  quite  exactly  the  state  of  the  subject  at  a  given 
moment. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        425 


On  the  contrary,  the  sort  of  results  obtained  according  to  the 
older  method,  e.g.: 

Memory,  poor; 

Intelligence,  sufficient; 

Attention,  easily  aroused,  etc.; 

were  practically  worthless,  especially  in  absence  of  any  knowledge 
of  the  competence  of  the  person  who  formulated  these  judgments. 

Here  is  an  example  of  a  series  of  questions  to  be  used  as  a 
psychic  test,  prepared  by  Professor  Sante  de  Sanctis,  and  included 
in  the  Biographic  charts  of  the  Asylum-School  for  Defective 
Children  at  Rome: 


1.  What  is  your  name? 

2.  How  old  are  yqu? 

3.  What  is  your  mamma's  name? 

4.  Have  you  any  brothers? 

5.  Have  you  any  sisters? 

6.  What  is  your  father's  business? 

7.  Is  your  father  (or  mother)  old  or 

young? 

8.  At  what  age  is  one  old? 

9.  How  do  you  know  that  a  man  is 

old? 

10.  What   is  this?     (a  couch  in  the 

corridor). 

11.  What  is  it  for? 

12.  What  is  this?    (a  table). 

13.  What  is  it  for? 

14.  Do  you  always  feel  well? 

15.  Are  you  hungry? 

16.  When  are  you  hungry? 

17.  Do  you  ever  dream  at  night? 

18.  What  do  you  dream? 

19.  What  time  is  it  now,  more  or  less? 

20.  What  year  is  it? 

21.  What  month  is  it? 

22.  What  season  of  the  year? 

23.  What  day  of  the  month  is  it? 

24.  What  day  of  the  week? 

25.  Where  do  you  live? 


26.  Where    are    you    at    the    present 

moment? 

27.  What  are  these?   (two  books  or  two 

pictures)  and  which  of  the  two 
is  the  larger? 

28.  Which  of  these  three  glasses  has 

the  most  water  in  it? 

29.  Which  will  weigh  the  most  and  which 

the  least  of  the  three? 

30.  How    many   persons   are  there  in 

your  home? 

31.  Is  your  home  large  or  small? 

32.  How  many  rooms  are  there? 

33.  Whom  do  you  love  most? 

34.  What  would  you  do  if  (the  person 

named)  were  hungry? 

35.  What  would  you  do  if  he  were  very 

sick? 

36.  Or  if  he  died? 

37.  Do   you   love   some   playmate,   or 

some  friend?     Why  do  you  love 
him? 

38.  Do  you  hate  anyone?   Why? 

39.  Do  you  know  the  meaning  of  right 

and  wrong? 

40.  Do  you  know  the  meaning  of  re- 

wards and  punishments? 


Out  of  all  the  existing  forms  of  biographic  charts  I  have  selected  four  in 
their  entirety;  two  are  historical:  1.  the  first  form  for  the  individual  examination 
of  the  pupil  ever  published  in  any  treatise  on  pedagogy;  and  2.  the  first  form 
printed  in  Italy  by  the  city  authorities  with  the  intention  of  having  it  introduced 
into  the  elementary  schools. 


426  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  first  of  these  is  the  biographic  chart  proposed  by  Se"guin  in  his  pedagogic 
treatise  relating  to  the  education  of  idiots  (Traitement  moral,  hygiene,  et  Edu- 
cation des  idiots,  1846) ;  the  second  is  the  one  proposed  by  Sergi  for  the  communal 
schools  of  Rome,  and  printed  by  the  Commune  with  the  intention  (1889),  never 
actually  carried  out,  of  introducing  it  into  the  schools;  at  all  events,  this  is  the 
first  historic  document  representing  an  idea  twenty  years  in  advance  of  the  time 
when  the  idea  itself  was  destined  to  begin  to  be  popularised. 

Here  are  the  two  forms  in  question: 

S^guin's  Form. — This  follows  out  all  of  Se'guin's  pedagogical  ideas,  and  all 
of  his  didactic  methods;  it  is  a  guide  for  the  physician,  and  a  minute  guide  for  the 
teacher  who  intends  to  adopt  the  Se'guin  methods  of  education.  Seguin  calls 
his  biographic  chart  a  "Monographic  Picture,"  and  divides  it  into  five  para- 
graphs, the  fifth  of  which  deals  with  the  pupil's  antecedents. 


MONOGRAPHIC  PICTURE  (Seguin) 
I.  Portrait  (Objective  Morphological  Examination) 

Age.  General  attitude  of  the  body. 

Sex.  Attitude  of  the  head. 

Temperament,  health.  Attitude  of  the  trunk. 

Illnesses,  accessory  infirmities.  Attitude  of  the  lower  limbs. 

Detailed  configuration  of  the  cranium.  Attitude  of  the  upper  limbs. 

Configuration  of  the  face.  Attitude  of  the  hand  and  fingers. 

Proportional  relation  between  cranium  Configuration  of  the  organs  of  speech, 

and  face.  and   their    possible   relation   to   the 

Inequality  of  the  two  sides  of  cranium  organs  of  generation;  dentition. 

and  face.  Configuration  of  the  thorax. 

Hair,  skin.  State  of  the  vertebral  column. 

Proportional  relation  between  the  trunk  State  of  the  abdomen. 

and  the  limbs. 
Inequality    of   the   two    sides  of  the 

trunk  and  limbs. 

II.  Physiological  Examination 

Activity,  general  and  applied.  Voluntary  articular  flexions. 

Apparent  state  of  the  nervous  system.  Locomotion. 

General    irritability    of   the  nervous  Positions,  recumbent,   seated,  standing, 

system.  walking,  ascending,  descending. 

Irritability  of  special  groups  of  nerves.  Running. 

Cries,  groans,  singing,  muttering,  etc.  Jumping. 

The  change  which  certain  stimulants  Grasping  objects. 

such  as  cold,  heat,  electricity,  odours,  Dropping  objects. 

etc.,  produce  upon  irritability  and  Catching  objects. 

sensibility,  general  or  special.  Throwing  objects. 

Probable  state  of  the  brain.  Ability  to  dress,  eat,  etc.,  without  aid. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        427 


Probable  state  of  the  spinal  marrow. 

Probable  state  of  the  organic  nerves. 

Probable  state  of  the  sensory  nerves. 

Probable  state  of  the  motor  nerves. 

Difference  of  action  between  the 
sensory  nerves  and  the  motor 
nerves. 

Inequality  of  action  of  the  motor 
nerves  and  sensory  nerves  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  body. 

The  muscular  system,  contractibility 
of  muscles,  and  condition  of  sphinc- 
ter muscles  in  particular. 

Muscular  movements. 

Voluntary  movements. 

Automatic  movements  depending  on 
the  condition  of  the  sympathetic 
nerve. 

Automatic  movements  depending  on 
the  state  of  the  central  nervous 
system. 

Spasmodic  movements. 

Coordinated  and  disassociated  move- 
ments. 


Sense  of  touch. 

Sense  of  taste. 

Sense  of  smell. 

Sense  of  hearing. 

Sense  of  sight. 

Erectility. 

The  voice,  abnormal  tones. 

Speech. 

Assimilative  functions. 

Unnatural  appetites. 

Manner  of  taking  food. 

Mastication. 

Swallowing. 

Digestion. 

Evacuation  of  faeces  and  urine,  volun- 
tary or  involuntary;  other  excretions, 
saliva,  nasal  mucus,  tears,  sebaceous 
humor,  sweat,  perspiration,  etc. 

Pulse. 

Respiration. 

Sleep. 


III.  Psychic  Examination 


Attention. 

Sensorial  perception. 

Intellectual  perception. 

Deduction. 

Coordination. 

Inventiveness. 

Unrelated  memories. 

Foresight  and  forethought. 

To  what  extent  are  these  intellectual 
operations,  when  they  exist,  applied 
to  concrete  phenomena,  mixed  phe- 
nomena (i.e.,  concrete  and  abstract) 
and  to  ideas  of  a  moral  nature? 

Are  the  general  ideas  of  time,  space, 
conventional  measurements,  rela- 
tive value,  intrinsic  or  arbitrary, 
understood  and  applied  in  actual 
daily  life? 


Comparison. 

Judgment. 

Reflection. 

Have  the  ordinary  rudiments,  such  as 
the  alphabet,  reading,  writing,  draw- 
ing, arithmetic,  been  taught  to  the 
pupil  or  not,  and  can  they  be  taught 
in  his  present  state? 

Have  his  attitude  toward  music  and 
mathematics,  enjoyment  of  singing, 
irresistible  desire  to  sing,  been  brought 
about  naturally? 

Has  he  a  perception  of  the  physical 
proportion  of  bodies,  such  as  colour, 
form,  dimensions,  relations  between 
the  parts  to  form  a  whole? 


428 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


IV.  Examination  Regarding  Instincts  and  Sentiments 


Instinct  of  self-preservation. 

Instincts  of  order,  readjustment,  pres- 
ervation and  destruction  of  objects. 

Aggressiveness,  cruelty. 

Instinct  of  assimilation  and  posses- 
sion. 

Is  the  child  obedient  or  rebellious,  re- 
spectful or  impertinent,  affectionate 
or  cold,  rude  or  courteous,  grateful, 
jealous,  merry  or  sad,  proud,  vain  or 
indifferent,  courageous  or  cowardly, 
timid  or  venturesome,  circumspect 
or  thoughtless,  credulous  or  sus- 
picious? 

Has  the  child  a  sense  of  abstract  right 
and  wrong  or  only  in  relation  to  a 
small  number  of  acts  that  concern 
himself? 


Does  the  child  show  spontaniety  or  an 
active  will — the  kind  of  will  which 
is  the  initial  cause  of  all  human  actions 
producing  intellectual  or  social  results? 

Has  the  child  only  a  negative  will  asso- 
ciated with  instincts  and  does  he  pro- 
test energetically  against  any  extra- 
neous will  that  tends  to  compel  the 
idiot  to  concern  himself  with  social  or 
abstract  phenomena? 

Finally,  in  what  direction  and  within 
what  limits  has  the  idiot  passed 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  his  ego  in 
order  to  enter  into  physcial,  instinc- 
tive, intellectual  and  moral  com- 
munication with  the  phenomena  which 
surround  him? 


V.  Etiology 


Origin  of  father  and  mother. 

Their  constitution. 

Hereditary  diseases. 

Place  of  residence  at  the  time  of  the 

child's  conception,  gestation,  birth 

and  lactation. 
Possible  causes  of  idiocy. 
Circumstances  worthy  of  note  during 

conception. 


Circumstances  worthy  of  note  during 
gestation,  delivery,  lactation. 

Serious  illnesses  of  the  child  during  the 
first  year. 

Infirmities  and  illnesses  from  the  first 
year  down  to  the  first  symptoms  of 
idiocy.  Progress,  retrogression  or 
stationary  state  from  the  child's 
birth  down  to  the  time  of  examination. 


If  we  realise  that  this  model  for  a  biographic  chart  was  pro- 
posed more  than  one-half  a  century  ago,  it  makes  us  marvel  at 
the  modern  spirit  of  its  concepts :  it  actually  considers  the  relation 
between  the  development  of  the  trunk  and  of  the  limbs,  the  mimic 
attitudes  of  the  body,  the  constitution,  etc.,  all  of  which  concepts 
are  foreign  to  the  studies  of  the  medical  clinics  from  which  Seguin 
must  have  drawn  his  inspiration,  since  even  to  the  present  day 
the  tendency  in  the  clinics  is  toward  purely  analytical  investi- 
gation, with  the  exception  of  Professor  De  Giovanni's  clinic. 

In  the  model  proposed  by  Sergi,  the  examination  was  required 
to  be  made  twice :  first  upon  the  reception  of  the  pupil,  and  again 
at  his  departure  with  the  modifications  shown  below: 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        429 


BIOGRAPHICAL  CHART  FOR  SCHOOLS  (SERGI) 
TABLE  I. — Physical  Observations 


On  entering  school 
Class..  .    Year.. 


On  leaving  school 
Class . .  .  Year . . 


1.  Name. 

2.  Age. 

3.  Birthplace. 

4.  Parentage  (father  and  mother). 

5.  Vaccination. 

6.  Stature. 

7.  Weight. 

8.  Pulmonary  capacity. 

9.  Muscular  force. 

10.  General  state  of  health. 

11.  Past  illnesses. 

12.  Anomalies,  deformities. 

13.  Head,  horizontal  circumference. 

14.  Head,  maximum  length. 

15.  Head,  maximum  width. 

16.  Cephalic  index. 

17.  Face,  length. 

18.  Face,  width. 

19.  Facial  index. 

20.  Hair,  colour,  form. 

21.  Eyes,  colour. 

22.  Skin,  complexion. 

23.  Incidental  remarks. 


1.  Name. 

2.  Age. 

3.  Birthplace. 

4.  Parentage  (father  and  mother). 

5.  Vaccination. 

6.  Stature. 

7.  Weight. 

8.  Pulmonary  capacity. 

9.  Muscular  force. 

10.  General  state  of  health. 

11.  Past  illnesses. 

12.  Anomalies,  deformities. 

13.  Head,  horizontal  circumference. 

14.  Head,  maximum  length. 

15.  Head,  maximum  width. 

16.  Cephalic  index. 

17.  Face,  length. 

18.  Face,  width. 

19.  Facial  index. 

20.  Hair,  colour,  form. 

21.  Eyes,  colour. 

22.  Skin,  complexion. 

23.  Incidental  remarks. 


28 


430 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


BIOGRAPHICAL  CHART  FOR  SCHOOLS  (SERGI) 
TABLE  II. — Psychological  Observations 


On  entering  school 
Class.  .  .    Year.  . 


Class. 


On  leaving  school 
Year.  . 


1.  Sight,  acuteness,  far-  or  near-sighted. 

2.  Sense  of  colour,  normal,  defective. 

3.  Hearing,  acuteness. 

4.  Sense  of  touch,  acuteness. 

5.  Intelligence,  quick  or  slow. 

6.  Perception,  rapid  or  gradual. 

7.  Memory,  tenacious  or  short. 

8.  Attention,  easily  aroused  or  not. 

9.  Speech,  rapid  or  slow. 

10.  Speech,  pronunciation  perfect  or  im- 

perfect. 

11.  Speech,  stammering. 

12.  Emotional  sensibility,  dull  or  easily 

assumed. 

13.  Conduct  and  character  at  home. 

14.  Affection  for  parents. 

15.  Taciturnity  or  loquacity. 

16.  Preferences  during  free  hours. 

17.  Caprices,  eccentricities. 

18.  Unusual  incidental  occurrences. 


1.  Sight,  acuteness,  far- or  near-sighted. 

2.  Sense  of  colour,  normal,  defective. 

3.  Hearing,  acuteness. 

4.  Sense  of  touch,  acuteness. 

5.  Intelligence,  quick  or  slow. 

6.  Perception,  rapid  or  gradual. 

7.  Memory,  tenacious  or  short. 

8.  Attention,  easily  aroused  or  not. 

9.  Attention,  how  long  sustained. 

10.  Attention,  progressive  weariness. 

11.  Speech,  rapid  or  slow. 

12.  Speech,  pronunciation  perfect  or  im- 

perfect. 

13.  Speech,  stammering. 

14.  Emotional  sensibility,  dull  or  easily 

assumed. 

15.  Conduct  and  character  in  school. 

16.  Friendships  in  school. 

17.  Taciturnity  or  loquacity. 

18.  Preferences  during  free  hours. 

19.  Caprices,  eccentricities. 

20.  Unusual  incidental  occurrences. 


The  two  other  biographic  charts  that  deserve  specific  mention 
are,  unlike  the  above,  charts  in  actual  use,  since  they  have  both 
been  recently  introduced  into  practical  service. 

The  first,  which  I  reproduce  in  entirety,  is  the  one  adopted  by 
the  Commune  of  Bologna  for  its  schools;  the  second  is  the  one 
introduced,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  inmates,  into  the 
government  reformatories,  of  Italy,  that  have  recently  been 
transformed  into  educational  institutions,  into  which  a  number  of 
important  reforms  have  been  introduced,  through  the  influence  of 
scientific  pedagogy — among  others,  these  biographical  charts  and 
the  anthropological  researches  connected  with  them. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        431 


Biographic  chart  for  elementary  schools: 
DISTRICT  OP 


Class . 


COMMUNE  OF  BOLOGNA 

OFFICE  X. — HYGIENE 
Biographic  Chart  of  the  Pupil 


Name  and  Surname 

Age 

Place  of  birth  and  residence 

Parents'  Place  of  birth  and  vocation . 


Year  191 . . 


THE  TEACHER. 


State  of  skin,  of  the  subcutaneous 
tissue,  the  muscles,  the  lymphatic 
glands 

horizontal  circumference 
maximum  width 
maximum  length 

Celphalic  index 

height 
width 

Facial  index 


Head 


Face 


/  colour 
\  form 

keenness  of  sight 
hypermetropia 
myopia 
colour  sense 
colour  of  iris 
Hearing,  acuteness 
form 

number  decayed 
number  missing 
Anomalies  of  development 
Weight      f  at  the  beginning, 

of  body  \  at  the  end  of  the  year 
Total  spread  of  arms 
Stature 
Pulmonary  capacity 

THE  PHYSICIAN 


Hair 


Eyes 


Teeth 


Illnesses   incurred   during   the   school 
year 


Total  number  of  absences 


Number  of  absences  on  account  of  ill- 
ness 


Profit  derived  from  instruction 


Conduct  and  character  in  school 


Affection  toward  parents  and  school- 
mates 


Special  observations 


THE  MASTER 


432  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

The  biographic  chart  of  the  reformatories  is  among  the  most 
complete;  nevertheless,  it  is  based  upon  antiquated  methods  for 
the  study  of  the  individual,  including,  for  instance,  the  facial 
index  and  ignoring  that  of  the  stature;  and  limiting  the  psychic 
examination  to  abstract  notes  (reflection,  attention,  etc.).  It 
constitutes,  however,  an  anthropological  record,  for  it  follows  the 
child  throughout  his  whole  residence  in  the  reformatory. 

What  is  called,  in  the  chart  in  question,  the  moral  account, 
corresponds  to  our  third  subdivision  in  biographic  histories,  in  so 
far  as  it  represents  a  summary  of  the  daily  records.  Under  this 
head  mention  is  made  of  the  moral  balance,  and  the  notes  tell  us 
that  it  is  founded  upon  ''punishments"  and  "rewards."  In  so 
far  as  they  treat  of  disciplining  children,  these  notes  are  not  to  be 
taken  as  a  model;  they  are  evidently  a  relic  of  antiquated  educative 
methods  that  have  survived  amid  the  efforts  of  a  new  scientific 
movement.  There  is  no  mention  made  of  medical  treatment 
bestowed  upon  the  children,  who  may  very  often  owe  their  so- 
called  moral  anomalies  to  a  pathological  condition  which  must 
frequently  be  aggravated  by  punishments.  It  is  well  known  that 
many  normal  children  have  periods  of  agitation  which  is  mani- 
fested by  the  most  various  kinds  of  action  (impulsiveness,  sexual 
excesses,  rebellion),  followed  by  periods  of  calm  during  which  the 
child  exhibits  the  opposite  characteristics  (industriousness,  obedi- 
ence, etc.).  The  biographic  chart  is  quite  likely  to  show  a  record 
of  punishments  and  rewards  corresponding  to  these  contrasted 
periods;  and  in  this  respect  it  follows  antiquated  pedagogic 
methods,  which  are  precisely  what  need  to  be  reformed  under  the 
light  of  science. 

An  illustration  of  this  is  contained  in  the  biographic  history  of 
an  idiot  boy  in  the  asylum  of  the  Bicetre,  a  report  of  which  is  given 
below:  the  periodic  anomalies  of  character  in  the  boy  should  be 
noticed.  Many  epileptic  children  do  not  have  convulsions,  but 
exhibit  instead  anomalies  of  character  which  become  permanent 
and  are  naturally  aggravated  by  fatigue  and  punishment ;  and  the 
great  majority  of  such  children  pass  eventually  into  reformatories. 
In  the  forms  customarily  used  for  biographic  charts,  there  is 
liberal  provision  for  daily  notes.  Accordingly,  in  the  biographic 
chart  of  the  child  in  question  there  are  a  number  of  blank  pages 
on  which  casual  notes  have  been  entered  (diary).  Every  fact 
deserving  of  notice  has  been  entered;  facts  of  a  physio-patho- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        433 

logical  nature,  such  as  illnesses,  strength,  endurance  in  running, 
appetite,  outbursts  of  anger  without  cause;  school-notes  regarding 
the  progress  attained  by  the  child  in  school,  especially  when  he 
has  overcome  serious  difficulties,  correction  of  incidental  defects 
of  speech,  etc.,  and  notes  of  a  psycho-moral  nature  regarding 
acts  committed  by  the  child,  tending  to  show  the  state  of  his 
feelings. 

The  master  has  a  general  register  which  may  be  compared  to 
the  daily  entry  book  used  in  book-keeping,  and  in  which  all  the 
notes  of  the  day  are  entered.  Days  and  even  months  frequently 
pass  without  any  entry  being  made  in  regard  to  some  particular 
child.  From  this  general  register  the  master  later  draws  up 
individual  summaries  which  are  then  transcribed  into  the  cor- 
responding biographic  history  of  each  child. 

Once  in  so  many  years  all  the  measurements  and  observations 
are  repeated  in  their  entirety  (e.g.,  at  the  most  important  periods 
of  growth  with  especial  study  of  the  epoch  of  puberty).  When 
the  child  is  definitely  discharged  from  the  school,  a  general  sum- 
mary is  drawn  up;  in  such  a  case  the  biographic  chart  represents 
that  individual's  own  personal  history;  a  human  and  social  docu- 
ment of  the  highest  interest  to  anyone  who  wishes  to  know  himself, 
and  continue  his  own  self-education!  It  might  serve  as  a  useful 
guide  to  a  man  of  intelligence. 

These  registers  and  biographic  charts  may  be  compared  to  the 
record  of  points  and  the  report  cards  that  are  in  use  to-day  in  the 
schools.  Even  the  report  cards  which  are  obtained  through  a 
fatiguing  process  of  averages  represent  a  summary  of  notes  taken 
every  day  by  the  teacher  (although  not  every  day  for  every  pupil). 
But  the  report  card  is  of  no  practical  use  to  the  man  who  wishes 
to  draw  up  a  faithful  record  of  the  education  he  has  received  that 
will  serve  to  guide  him  through  life. 

Since  there  do  not  yet  exist  any  complete  biographic  histories 
relating  to  normal  children,  I  shall  reproduce  one  of  an  idiot  boy 
who  was  received  into  the  great  Paris  hospital  for  defectives; 
this  history  is  interesting  because  it  is  the  result  of  the  methods  of 
Se'guin  who  was  the  founder  of  the  anthropological  movement  in 
pedagogy;  it  would  be  still  more  interesting  if  we  could  offer 
the  complete  history  of  a  normal  man  or  of  a  wayward  boy  re- 
deemed by  education.  But  let  us  hope  for  this  in  the  near  future ! 

The  summary  of  the  history  which  I  here  reproduce  does  not 


434  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

contain  the  objective  examination  of  the  boy  at  the  time  of  his 
reception;  because  that  would  only  be  a  repetition  of  what  has 
already  been  described,  while  the  part  which  it  now  interests  us 
to  illustrate  is  that  containing  the  summaries  of  the  diaries.  The 
antecedents,  however,  are  given  because  they  are  indispensable 
for  an  understanding  of  the  patient's  personality. 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  BIOGRAPHIC  HISTORY  OF  AN  IDIOT  BOY 

Admitted  at  the  Age  of  3  Years,  and  Dismissed  at  the  Age  of  17 

OUTLINE:  Father  an  alcoholic. — Mother  subject  to  migraine. — No  consan- 
guinity between  the  parents.  Equality  of  ages  (difference  of  two  years). 
— A  sister  died  of  convulsions. — Conception  during  an  alcoholic  excess  on  the 
part  of  the  father. — Albuminuria  during  pregnancy. — The  child  cried  both 
night  and  day. — Twitchings  of  the  body  and  head. — Did  he  ever  have 
convulsions? — Fits  of  anger. — At  the  time  of  admission,  he  could  neither 
speak  nor  walk  (July  30,  1881,  age  3  years). — The  child  has  involuntary 
emissions  of  faeces  and  urine  (is  uncleanly). 

September,  1884. — The  child  has  learned  to  walk. 

1885. — Development  of  speech. — The  child  is  beginning  to  give  notice  of  its 
natural  necessities. 

1886. — The  child  is  no  longer  uncleanly. — The  twitchings  of  head  and  body  and 
the  fits  of  anger  have  diminished. 

1887-1890. — Progressive  improvement,  with  alternate  progressive  and  sta- 
tionary periods. 

1891. — Description  of  the  patient. 

1892-1897. — Physical  and  intellectual  evolution. — Progress  in  studies. — Acquire- 
ment of  a  trade. — Results. 

Remote  Antecedents.  (Notes  furnished  by  the  mother.) — Father:  35  years  old, 
tailor's  cutter,  large,  strong,  of  calm  temperament,  a  smoker;  numerous 
excesses  of  alcoholic  beverages,  especially  absinthe — as  many  as  eleven  a  day; 
venereal  excesses;  came  home  intoxicated  almost  every  day;  never  had  con- 
vulsions in  infancy,  nor  any  nervous  shock;  suffered  only  from  eczema. 
No  syphilis. — Father's  Family:  Paternal  grandfather  a  mason,  sober,  died 
of  heart  disease.  Paternal  grandmother,  of  calm  temperament,  enjoyed  good 
health.  No  other  information  regarding  paternal  ancestry. — Mother:  33 
years  old,  seamstress,  good  health,  regular  features;  no  convulsions  in 
infancy.  Menstruated  at  age  of  13  years,  married  at  20.  Suffered  from 
migraine  since  she  was  nine  years  old.  These  headaches  lasted  three  days 
and  occurred  at  the  menstrual  periods,  ceasing  throughout  pregnancy  and 
lactation.  The  symptoms  were:  headache,  buzzing  in  the  ears,  to  the 
point  of  deafness,  and  vision  of  sparks  before  the  eyes.  The  attacks  termi- 
nated with  vomiting.  Mother's  Family:  Father  sober  and  in  good  health; 
mother  died  of  influenza.  No  information  regarding  either  the  ascendant 
or  collateral  branches;  but  there  seem  to  have  been  no  other  cases  of  nervous 
disease  in  the  family.  No  consanguinity,  no  disparity  in  ages.  Brothers 


and  Sisters  of  the  Patient:    The  mother  of  D- had  five  children;  the 

first,  a  boy  ten  years  and  a  half  old,  intelligent,  no  convulsions;  the  second,  a 
girl,  died  at  fourteen  months,  after  having  convulsions  that  continued  for 
eight  days;  the  third,  a  girl,  seven  years  old,  intelligent,  no  convulsions; 

the  fourth,  the  patient  in  question;  the  fifth,  a  girl,  born  after  D 'a 

admission  to  the  asylum;  she  is  intelligent  and  healthy,  no  convulsions. 
Near  Antecedents.  The  child's  mother  is  convinced  that  the  conception  took 
place  during  alcoholic  intoxication.  Pregnancy  was  accompanied  by  gener- 
alised oedema  from  the  fifth  month  onward,  due  to  albuminuria.  No 
eclampsia.  No  faulting  fits,  etc.  Delivery  timely,  difficult,  but  accom- 
plished naturally.  The  child  at  birth  was  strong  and  not  asphyxiated. 
Was  nursed  by  the  mother  for  the  first  two  months,  after  which  he  de- 
pended upon  hired  nurses  and  artificial  feeding  (was  sent  to  the  country 
where  he  was  fed  chiefly  from  the  bottle).  Was  returned  to  the  mother  at 
the  age  of  eleven  months;  could  not  walk;  would  eat  anything  within  reach 
of  his  hands,  coal,  excrements.  Cried  continually,  day  and  night,  to  the 
great  disturbance  of  the  neighbours.  Cut  his  first  tooth  at  five  months;  and 
at  the  age  of  three  years  the  first  dentition  was  not  yet  completed.  Has  a 
habit  of  swaying  his  body  forward  and  backward;  beats  his  head  against 
the  wall,  the  chairs,  etc.,  and  strikes  his  forehead  with  his  clenched  fist. 
Has  habitual  constipation.  Is  extremely  affectionate,  loves  to  be  caressed. 
Yet  he  will  bite  anyone  who  approaches  him,  including  his  brothers  and 
sisters.  It  cannot  be  learned  whether  when  he  was  staying  with  the  wet- 
nurse  he  ever  had  convulsions.  It  is  certain  that  he  had  none  after  his 
return  to  the  family.  The  habit  of  onanism  dates  from  the  time  of  his 
return  from  the  nurse.  Vaccinated  at  13  months,  slight  attack  of  varioloid 
at  the  age  of  two  years;  no  other  infectious  diseases.  No  manifestation  of 
scrofula;  no  traumatism. 

Objective  Examination  of  the  Patient  (omitted). — The  history  is  accompanied  by 
eight  photographs  of  the  boy,  taken  respectively  at  the  ages  of  3,  4,  6,  8, 
11,  15,  and  16  years,  three  of  which,  namely,  those  taken  at  the  ages  of 
6,  11  and  16,  are  reproduced  on  page  278. 

DIARIES 

July  2. — He  is  uncleanly  (emissions  of  faeces  and  urine).  Does  not  know  how  to 
behave  at  table;  when  he  eats  he  spills  his  food  over  his  clothing.  Is 
gluttonous  but  not  voracious;  he  does  not  steal  the  food  of  his  companions, 
but  he  protests  when  he  sees  food  given  to  others  and  not  to  him.  Is  mis- 
trustful, hides  his  bread  for  fear  that  it  will  be  taken  from  him;  and  if  any 
one  takes  notice  of  this,  he  utters  a  cry  of  rage.  He  is  affectionate,  very 
timid,  jealous,  obstinate,  grumbling,  somewhat  sullen,  seldom  laughs.  Al- 
though weak,  he  fights  his  companions  and  frequently  falls  into  fits  of 
anger;  then  he  flings  himself  on  the  floor  and  beats  his  head  against  the  furni- 
ture. He  sways  his  body  forward  and  backward.  His  power  of  speech  is 
limited  to  three  words:  papa,  mamma,  and  no.  He  is  able  to  make  himself 
understood  when  he  wants  anything. 


436  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

August-September. — Two  slight  attacks  of  ophthalmia.  The  child  has  now 
learned  to  walk. 

January-March,  1885. — Otitis  (inflammation  of  the  ear). 

August. — The  ability  to  speak  is  developing  progressively.  He  has  begun  to 
give  notice  of  his  natural  necessities;  is  seldom  uncleanly,  so  that  it  is  now 
possible  to  let  him  wear  trousers.  The  habit  of  balancing  his  body  back  and 
forth  is  tending  to  disappear.  The  accesses  of  anger  have  become  rarer. 
He  is  less  jealous  and  plays  indiscriminately  with  his  companions. 

January,  1886. — The  improvement  continues.  D is  now  very  attentive  in 

school.  When  out  walking  he  takes  an  interest  in  the  things  he  sees  and  asks 
for  explanations.  Is  doing  well  in  the  first  gymnastic  exercises.  Makes  a 
good  appearance. 

March. — D has  now  become  altogether  cleanly.  Furthermore,  he  knows 

how  to  wash,  dress  and  undress  himself  alone.  At  table,  can  handle  his  spoon 
and  fork  quite  properly,  but  cannot  yet  manage  his  knife.  Is  less  gluttonous ; 
his  speech  is  fully  developed.  Although  he  cannot  keep  still  in  school  and 
constantly  changes  his  position,  he  has  succeeded  in  learning  to  know  his 
letters,  the  different  colours,  etc.,  can  count  up  to  50,  and  can  name  the 
greater  part  of  the  objects  contained  in  the  boxes  used  for  object  lessons. 

The  balancing  of  the  body  has  completely  disappeared.  D has  a 

tendency  toward  onanism.  Accesses  of  anger  are  still  noted,  during  which 
he  is  very  vulgar. 

December. — Condition  stationary.  Misconduct  in  class,  frequent  fits  of  anger, 
during  which  he  abuses  everyone  and  strikes  his  smaller  comrades. 

March,  1887. — D is  calmer  and  does  better  work.  Can  count  up  to  sixty. 

His  general  knowledge  has  increased.  Can  tell  his  age,  his  name,  the  name 
of  his  parents,  what  their  employment  is,  where  they  live,  etc. 

April,  1888. — The  improvement  continues.  His  behavior  is  better.  Has 
learned  the  names  of  materials,  of  plane  surfaces,  of  solids;  can  distinguish 
vowels  from  consonants.  It  has  been  impossible  to  induce  him  to  trace 
simple  strokes  even  upon  the  blackboard. 

December. — Is  more  diligent  and  has  taken  a  fancy  to  writing. 

January-June,  1889. — Is  in  the  infirmary  on  account  of  anal  ulcers. 

December. — Notable  improvement  in  general  knowledge.  Has  begun  to  write 
certain  letters  in  his  copybook. 

December,  1890. — D 's  conduct  is  good.  He  is  no  longer  disorderly;  and  if 

at  times  it  is  necessary  to  reprove  him,  he  recognises  his  fault,  cries,  and 
promises  to  do  better.  He  fears  ab.ove  all  that  his  misconduct  will  be 
reported  to  his  mother.  Has  a  fairly  accurate  notion  of  right  and  wrong, 
is  no  longer  so  extremely  jealous  and  shows  affection  for  his  comrades. 
Has  learned  to  write  syllables  well;  is  able  to  copy  short  paragraphs;  can 
do  simple  sums  in  addition;  gives  clear  answers  to  questions.  Walking, 
running,  jumping,  going  up  and  down  stairs  have  become  easy  for  him. 
The  child  uses  his  fork  and  knife  at  table;  chews  his  food  well,  does  not 
suffer  from  any  digestive  disturbance.  Is  orderly,  and  attends  to  himself 
in  all  details  of  his  toilet. 

April  21,  1891 :  Objective  Examination. — The  child's  face  has  a  uniformly  ruddy 
complexion;  lips  full-blooded;  skin  smooth,  without  scars  or  eruptions, 


excepting  a  slight  scaliness  due  to  eczema.  Two  small  ganglia  in  the  left 
submaxillary  region,  but  no  others  in  any  other  locality.  Cranium  sym- 
metrical; volume  and  form  normal.  Frontal  and  parietal  nodules  slightly 
prominent;  occipital  nodule  quite  prominent  (pentagonoid  cranium).  Hair 
light  blonde,  abundant,  fine,  growing  low  upon  the  forehead.  Posterior 
vortex  normal,  forehead  wide,  but  not  high.  Visage  oval;  with  a  slight 
depression  of  the  nostril  and  corner  of  the  mouth  on  the  right  side;  has  on  the 
whole  an  intelligent  express  on;  it  is  mobile  and  reflects  the  moods  and 
feelings  natural  to  boyhood.  The  superciliary  arches  are  only  slightly  arched. 
The  eyebrows  are  chestnut  in  colour  and  scanty;  the  lashes  are  abundant 
and  long.  Iris  dark  blue;  pupils  equal  in  size  and  react  under  the  influence  of 
light.  No  functional  disturbance,  and  no  lesion  in  regard  to  the  eyes. 

Field  of  vision  normal.     D recognises  all  the  colours.     Nose  small, 

and  straight,  with  a  pronounced  aperture  of  the  nostrils.  Zygomata  regular, 
without  exaggerated  prominences;  naso-labial  furrows  barely  indicated. 
Aperture  of  mouth  very  wide  and  habitually  half  open.  Lips  thick  and 
slightly  drooping.  Tongue  normal.  Palatine  vault  distinctly  ogival. 
Tonsils  enlarged;  the  boy  is  subject  to  tonsillitis.  All  these  parts  show 
quite  a  blunted  sensibility,  which  permits  of  an  examination  of  the  pharynx, 
without  causing  nausea.  Chin  rounded,  without  indentation.  Ears  long 
and  thick,  the  outer  edge  is  normal,  including  the  fold  of  the  helix;  the  ears 
protrude  conspicuously  from  the  cranium  and  are  very  peculiar  in  shape; 
namely,  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  external  ear  form  with  the  lower  one- 
third  an  obtuse  angle  of  such  nature  that  the  concha  or  shell  really  repre- 
sents the  outline  of  a  very  deep  and  almost  hemispherical  sea-shell.  The 
lobule  is  thick,  regular,  and  notably  detached.  The  ear  is  the  seat  of 
frequent  attacks  of  erythema,  complicated  by  swelling.  Neck  rather  short 
and  quite  stout;  circumference  26  centimetres.  The  lobes  of  the  thyroid 
glands  are  plainly  palpable  to  the  touch. 

Thorax  and  Abdomen. — No  notable  peculiarities.  Auscultation  and  per- 
cussion show  that  the  internal  organs  are  normal.  Body  is  hairless.  Genital 
organs  are  normal.  The  upper  and  lower  limbs  are  normal  in  all  their 
segments. 

Icthyosis  of  the  skin  on  thighs  and  knees.  General  sensibility  normal; 
usual  physiological  reflex  actions. 

Treatment. — Regular  application  of  the  medico-pedagogical  method:  tonics 
during  the  winter;  hydrotherapy  annually,  from  the  first  of  April  to  the 
first  of  November. 

April  24. — The  mother,  finding  the  child  much  improved,  takes  him  home  on 
leave  (March)  and  later  (end  of  April)  requests  his  dismissal,  which  is 
granted  reluctantly,  in  the  fear  that  the  boy  may  lose  part  of  what  he  has 
so  laboriously  gained. 

May  19,  1892. — The  boy,  having  become  insubordinate  and  not  making  satis- 
factory progress  in  the  public  school  (to  which  he  was  sent,  so  that  he  would 
not  be  present  at  the  scenes  between  the  mother  and  the  father,  who  is 
habitually  intoxicated),  has  been  sent  back  to  the  asylum. 

June. — The  physical  evolution  continues.    The  child  is  very  timid  and  sensitive, 
,  cannot  bear  to  be  reproved  and  cries  when  he  is  corrected.     Reads  fluently, 


438  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

but  without  expression     Has  begun  to  write  familiar  words  from  dictation. 
During  his  absence  from  the  asylum  he  learned  to  know  the  numbers  and 
to  do  simple  examples  in  addition  and  subtraction. 
Treatment:     School  work;  gymnastics;  hydrotherapy  , 

July. — D is  at  present  conducting  himself  in  a  way  difficult  to  control;  he 

plays  ill-natured  jests  upon  his  companions;  places  needles  and  tacks  in  seats; 
during  the  assembly  he  amuses  himself  by  sticking  little  pins  into  the  backs 
of  the  girls  who  sit  in  front  of  him. 

December. — The  boy  is  very  lazy,  and  often  refuses  to  read  or  to  do  his  tasks; 
he  grins  and  sneers  if  he  is  corrected.  But  he  carries  out  very  well  all 
the  movements  in  the  lower  gymnastic  course.  Has  been  sent  to  the 
tailor's  work-shop  and  seems  to  have  taken  a  fancy  to  the  trade. 

April,  1893. — D has  become  quite  reasonable,  does  good  work  in  school, 

does  not  like  to  be  inactive,  has  ceased  to  grin  and  sneer.  His  writing  has  im- 
proved ;  his  reasoning  power  is  good ;  he  is  careful  of  his  clothes  to  the  point 
of  vanity;  eats  with  propriety,  has  ceased  to  bolt  his  food;  yet  it  is  still 
noticed  that  he  has  a  tendency  to  appropriate  the  wine  of  his  companions. 

June. — D is  passing  through  a  bad  period;  he  laughs  at  everything  that 

is  said  to  him,  is  very  obstinate,  annoys  his  comrades,  tears  up  copy-books, 
breaks  pens,  etc.  Is  careless  regarding  his  clothing;  makes  a  disturbance 
at  night  in  the  dormitory. 

December. — Same  state.  Tries  to  smoke;  is  unwilling  to  do  any  work;  laughs  at 
everybody;  dresses  with  great  carelessness;  it  is  necessary  to  compel  him  to 
wash  his  hands  and  face.  No  sign  of  puberty. 

December,  1894. — Notable  improvement;  D reads  quite  readily,  writes  quite 

well,  recognises  all  ordinary  objects,  their  use,  and  their  colour;  has  a 
conception  of  time.  Is  docile,  neat,  industrious  in  school  work,  is  attentive 
to  explanations  and  understands  them.  In  the  work-shop  he  continues  to 
show  progress. 

January- June,  1895. — The  improvement  continues;  D has  begun  to  learn 

the  multiplication  table;  he  is  well-mannered  and  scrupulous  in  his  be- 
haviour; excellent  in  gymnastics  In  the  tailor's  work-shop  he  makes 
marked  progress;  he  has  already  learned  to  put  together  an  entire  garment 
by  himself,  and  he  knows  how  to  use  the  machine.  From  time  to  time  he 
has  periods  of  indolence;  and  this  happens  more  often  in  the  work-shop 
than  in  the  class. 
Puberty. — A  slight  down  has  begun  to  appear  upon  his  upper  lip. 

July  8. — According  to  the  night  nurse,  D had  an  attack  of  epilepsy  during 

the  night;  he  never  had  one  before,  and  he  has  not  had  one  since. 

July  10. — Troubled  sleep,  nightmare,  unintelligible  and  threatening  words. 

January,  1896. — Very  notable  improvement  in  class.  The  boy  profited  above 
all  from  the  lessons  about  natural  objects,  in  wh'ch  he  takes  much  interest. 
From  time  to  time  he  shows  a  tendency  to  dissipation  and  gambling.  Is 
docile,  cleanly,  and  neat  in  personal  appearance  to  the  point  of  vanity. 
The  master  of  the  work-shop  is  very  much  pleased  with  him;  he  works  well 
with  the  machine.  Is  doing  well  in  gymnastics  and  in  singing. 
Puberty. — His  beard  has  begun  to  grow  even  on  his  cheeks. 

June. — Hand-writing,  far  from  improving,  seems  to  be  growing  worse.     On  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        439 


contrary,  it  is  noticed  that  he  has  made  progress  in  arithmetic.  Can  per- 
form all  four  primary  operations  and  has  begun  to  solve  easy  problems. 
His  general  knowledge  has  improved.  Has  become  a  good  tailor's  workman. 

January- June,   1897. — The  boy  prefers  the  work-shop  to  the  school  and  for 
some  time  the  mistake  has  been  made  of  leaving  him  wholly  in  the  work-shop. 

December. — Same  state  from  point  of  view  of  his  studies;  character  docile,  con- 
duct good,  personal  care  and  neatness  satisfactory.  Works  well  and 
rapidly  in  the  work-shop;  can  make  complete  suits  of  clothing;  uses  the 
machine  dexterously;  is  beginning  to  cut  out  garments. 
Puberty  complete,  no  onanism.  The  right  eyelids  are  less  widely  open  than 
the  left  by  nearly  a  quarter.  The  patient  says  that  he  does  not  see  so 
well  with  the  right  eye  as  with  the  left,  and  cannot  distinguish  with  it  even 
large  letters  unless  they  are  very  near. 

TABLE  OF  WEIGHT  AND  STATURE 


1890 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

Measurements 

h 

>» 

*3 

b 

b 

h 

03 

03 

c3 

d 
3 

a 
a 

i-s 

3 
9 

•-» 

3 

a 

3 

i-s 

a 

03 

3 

§ 

i-s 

i-s 

i-s 

Hj 

Weight  in  kilo- 

25 

34.700 

35.200 

35 

37.800 

39.800 

44 

46 

51 

53.700 

grams. 

Stature      in 

1.22 

1.39 

1.42 

1.42 

1.50 

1.53 

1.58 

1.61 

1.66 

1.69 

metres. 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  THE  HEAD  IN  CENTIMETRES 


1891 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

b 

b 

b 

b 

b 

>> 

b 

<& 

03 

e3 

03 

>> 

03 

>•> 

03 

>> 

a] 

s 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 

C 

^K. 

a 

03 

oS 

03 

93 

I—S 

03 

*""& 

o3 

'    5 

03 

•-S 

H» 

i-s 

i-s 

Hj 

l-» 

•-> 

Maximum  horizontal  circumfer- 

50.2 

50.2 

50.2 

52 

52 

52 

52 

52 

52 

54 

ence. 

Anterior  semi-circumference  

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

34 

Distance  from  the  occipito-atlan- 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

37 

toid  articulation  to  the  root  of 

nose. 

Maximum     antero-posterior    di- 

17.5 

17.8 

17.8 

18 

18 

18 

18 

19 

19 

19 

ameter. 

Maximum  biauricular  diameter.  .  . 

11 

12 

12 

12.5 

12.5 

12.5 

12.2 

12.5 

12.5    13 

Maximum  biparietal  diameter.  .  .  . 

13.5 

14 

14 

14.5 

14.5 

14.5 

14.5 

14.5 

14.5 

14.5 

Maximum  bitemporal  diameter.  .  . 

11 

11 

11 

11.5 

11.5 

12 

Medial  height  of  forehead  

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

440  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

In  the  antecedents  of  this  patient,  the  only  suggestions  of  de- 
generation are  the  alcoholism  of  the  father  and  the  fact  that  con- 
ception took  place  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  The  mother's  mi- 
graine might  also  be  considered  as  a  nervous  malady  amounting 
to  a  family  taint,  but  cannot  be  held  responsible  for  so  grave  an 
abnormality  as  idiocy. 

Consequently,  it  remains  beyond  doubt  that  the  most  inter- 
esting antecedent  fact  to  be  considered  in  this  case  is  the  concep- 
tion during  alcoholic  intoxication. 

The  individual  we  are  studying  is  a  sick  person;  this  is  shown 
by  ptosis  (drooping  eye-lid),  the  recurrent  periods  of  agitation,  the 
epileptic  convulsion  in  the  night  detected  by  the  night  nurse. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  in  the  photographs  of  the  child, 
the  alteration  of  expression  between  the  periods  of  calm  and  those 
of  agitation;  in  the  latter  the  face  is  asymmetrical  and  shows  con- 
tractions in  the  left  facial  region,  while  the  right  side  is  paretic; 
the  paresis  is  also  manifested  by  ptosis  (drooping  lids).  During 
the  periods  of  calm,  on  the  contrary,  the  left  side  also  is  atonic. 

In  the  course  of  the  history  the  differences  in  the  child's  con- 
duct in  the  two  states  are  well  described. 

During  the  periods  of  calm,  the  child  is  attentive,  docile,  care- 
ful of  his  dress,  timid,  and  makes  progress  in  his  studies;  during 
the  periods  of  agitation  he  is  unstable,  rebellious,  careless,  unkind 
to  his  comrades,  and  makes  no  progress  whatever.  At  the  begin- 
ning, there  were  no  periods  of  calm  at  all;  furthermore,  the  child 
had  every  appearance  of  being  an  idiot;  medico-pedagogic  treat- 
ment rendered  longer  and  more  frequent,  and  finally  permanent, 
these  periods  of  calm,  during  which  the  child's  intellectual  re- 
demption became  possible.  The  treatment  did  not  consist  solely 
in  the  education  of  an  idiot,  but  also  in  the  cure  of  a  sick  child.  "  At 
the  time  of  admission,"  according  to  the  observations  in  the  record, 
"the  diagnosis  was  retarded  mentality,  and  that  only  in  relation  to 
primary  instruction,  because  in  regard  to  matters  of  common 
knowledge  and  manual  work,  the  patient  comes  very  near  to  a 
normal  lad  of  average  intelligence." 

Such  a  surprising  transformation  of  an  individual  is  certainly 
deserving  of  admiration ;  but  this  diligently  compiled  study  is  not 
yet  quite  completed.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  when  the  education  of 

D was  begun,  observations  regarding  types  of  stature  were 

not  yet  made ;  but  his  photographs  show  that  he  was  an  exagger- 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        441 

ated  macroscelous  type.  The  trade  adopted  by  D—  -  which 
will  oblige  him  to  sit  with  his  chest  bowed  over  the  machine,  or 
in  a  kneeling  position  while  he  sews,  will  in  all  probability  drive 
him  straight  along  the  road  to  tuberculosis,  a  malady  to  which  his 
organism  has  singularly  predisposed  him.  It  would  be  interesting 
to  follow  further  the  history  of  this  patient,  who  has  been  trans- 
formed from  an  idiot  into  a  skilful  and  industrious  workman. 

The  society,  which  under  the  guidance  of  science,  achieved  his 
difficult  redemption,  has  perhaps  at  the  same  time  condemned 
him  to  death. 

The  modern  standards  of  pedagogical  anthropology  would  have 
furnished  a  more  far-sighted  guidance  in  the  choice  of  a  vocation. 

Meanwhile,  however,  this  history  reported  by  Thulie*  is  a 
luminous  demonstration  of  the  folly  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments; the  only  forms  of  intervention  during  the  periods  of  agi- 
tation, which  lasted  for  entire  months,  during  which  the  boy  was 
continually  unruly,  impulsive,  malicious,  reckless,  and  incapable 
of  work,  were  tonics,  hydrotherapy  and  kindly  treatment. 

"Punishments"  would  have  cruelly  wrecked  the  life  of  a 
human  being  who  was  naturally  gentle,  affectionate,  and  capable 
of  diligent  work  and  permanent  improvement. 

Something  similar  ought  to  be  attempted  in  the  reformatories. 
The  boys  who  are  regarded  as  incorrigible  are  frequently  sick  boys, 
with  an  hereditary  degenerative  taint,  and  need  to  live  in  a  tran- 
quil environment  and  to  receive  medical  treatment. 

The  biographic  charts  of  the  reformatories  give  no  evidence 
that  this  educative  movement  has  as  yet  been  understood.  They 
show  that  punishments  are  still  regarded  as  possessing  a  corrective 
efficacy,  because  the  conception  that  the  so-called  delinquent 
children  may  be  a  pathological  product  and  a  result  of  disastrous 
family  and  social  conditions,  has  not  yet  penetrated  with  sufficient 
clearness. 

But  progress  along  this  path  is  surely  bound  to  come  as  a 
result  of  the  experience  which  this  principle  of  reform  has  made 
possible. 

The  biographic  charts  have  unquestionably  laid  the  foundations 
of  a  new  edifice  in  pedagogy. 

Scientific  Pedagogical  Advantages  of  Biographic  Histories: 

1.  The  biographic  chart  takes  the  place  of  the  report  cards 
and  records  of  the  relative  marks  of  merit  and  demerit ;  for  while 


442  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

these  records  and  reports  constituted  a  statement  of  effects,  alto- 
gether empirical,  the  biographic  chart  investigates  the  causes 
and  in  this  way  furnishes  pedagogy  with  a  scientific  basis.  There 
is  no  need  of  further  demonstration.  The  principal  consequences 
of  the  above  indicated  progress  are  two  in  number. 

2.  The  biographic  chart,  replacing  the  earlier  classifications, 
raises  the  teacher's  standard  of  culture  by  directing  him  along  a 
scientific  path,  associates  the  teacher's  work  with  that  of   the 
physician,  and  makes  the  teacher  a  far-sighted  director  of  the 
development  and  perfectioning  of  the  new  generations. 

3.  The  biographic  chart  includes  a  new  educative  movement 
which  abolishes  rewards  and  punishments. 

On  this  third  point  much  might  be  said,  since  it  touches  upon  one  of  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  pedagogical  progress.  But  since  this  is  not  a  treatise 
upon  scientific  pedagogy,  it  is  necessary  to  limit  the  exposition  to  a  few  funda- 
mental points. 

In  fact,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  speak  of  cases  in  which  education  is  most 
difficult  and  where  the  rewards  and  punishments  are  unavailing — for  these  will 
include  all  simpler  cases.  A  luminous  example  is  furnished  by  the  education  of 
new-born  infants.  Of  all  human  beings  they  used  to  be  the  most  troublesome 
because  of  the  impossibility  of  educating  them  by  the  old-fashioned  methods. 
They  cried  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  making  a  slave  of  the  mother  or 
whoever  took  her  place. 

To-day,  babies  are  quiet;  it  is  marvelous  to  go  through  the  infant  ward  in 
the  Obstetrical  Clinic  of  Rome;  absolute  silence  reigns  there,  and  yet  if  we 
lift  up  the  white  curtains  of  the  cribs,  we  see  the  little  ones  lying  with  their 
eyes  wide  open.  A  deeper  knowledge  than  was  formerly  had  of  the  hygiene  of 
the  child  has  enabled  us  to  interpret  his  needs,  and  when  these  are  satisfied,  the 
child  is  tranquil.  Bodily  cleanliness,  liberty  of  movement,  prolonged  repose  in 
the  crib,  and  rational  feeding  have  obtained  this  remarkable  result  of  silencing 
the  baby,  of  rendering  it  more  robust  and  of  liberating  the  mother  from  the  slavery 
of  her  mission.  The  classic  cry  of  the  child  in  swaddling  bands  was  a  protest 
against  the  suffering  which  ignorance  imposed  upon  him.  To-day  the  little  one, 
lying  tranquilly  in  his  crib,  begins  to  exercise  his  senses  earlier  and  more  easily, 
a  ray  of  light  strikes  him  and  attracts  his  attention,  and  with  this  his  education 
has  begun,  while  formerly  the  suffering  due  to  indigestion  kept  him  for  a  much 
longer  time  a  stranger  to  the  external  world. 

The  same  thing  may  be  repeated  for  every  year  of  childhood.  Often  what  we 
call  naughtiness  on  the  part  of  the  individual  child  is  rebellion  against  our  own 
mistakes  in  educating  him.  The  coercive  means  which  we  adopt  toward  children 
are  what  destroy  their  natural  tranquility.  A  healthy  child,  in  his  moments  of 
freedom,  succeeds  in  escaping  from  the  toys  inflicted  upon  him  by  his  parents, 
and  in  securing  some  object  which  arouses  the  investigating  instinct  of  his  mind; 
a  worm,  an  insect,  some  pebbles,  etc.;  he  is  silent,  tranquil  and  attentive.  If  the 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        443 

child  is  not  well,  or  if  his  mother  obliges  him  to  remain  seated  in  a  chair,  playing 
with  a  doll,  he  becomes  restless,  cries,  or  gives  way  to  convulsive  outbursts  ("bad 
temper")*  The  mother  believes  that  educating  her  child  means  forcing  him  to 
do  what  is  pleasing  to  her,  however  far  she  may  be  from  knowing  what  the  child's 
real  needs  are,  and  unfortunately  we  must  make  the  same  statement  regarding 
the  school-teachers!  Then,  in  order  to  make  him  yield  to  coercion,  she  punishes 
the  child  when  he  rebels  and  rewards  him  when  he  is  obedient.  By  this  method 
we  drive  a  child  by  force  along  paths  that  are  not  natural  to  him.  In  the  same ,. 
way,  absolute  governments  employed  public  entertainments  and  the  gallows,  in 
order  to  compel  the  people  to  act  and  think  according  to  the  will  of  their  sover- 
eign; indeed,  they  were  considered  as  indispensable  means  of  good  government. 
To-day  we  have  come  to  realise  that  such  means  are  more  or  less  adapted  to  the 
successful  crushing  of  a  people's  spirit,  but  not  to  governing  them  well.  The  reign 
of  liberty,  which  leaves  men  the  opportunity  to  give  expression  to  their  own  powers 
and  above  all  to  their  own  thoughts,  is  doing  away  with  festivals  and  executions; 
and  it  is  not  until  this  is  accomplished  that  men  can  be  really  well  governed. 

Something  similar  is  going  to  take  place  in  the  schools.  But  here,  since  the 
children  are  incapable  of  understanding  what  they  ought  to  do  for  their  own  best 
good,  science  studies  them  in  order  to  assist  their  natural  needs. 

I  believe  that  we  must  greatly  modify  our  ideas  regarding  infant  psychology, 
as  soon  as  trained  psychologists  begin  to  observe  the  spontaneous  manifestations 
of  children,  to  the  end  of  encouraging  their  tendencies. 

Having  applied  scientific  methods  in  the  "Children's  Houses,"  we  were 
amazed  at  the  behaviour  of  those  little  children;  for  instance,  they  showed  con- 
tempt for  toys,  while  they  loved  objects  on  which  they  could  exercise  their  free 
powers  of  reason. 

Intellectual  exercise  is  the  most  pleasing  of  all  to  the  small  child  if  he  is  in  good 
health.  Indeed,  we  already  know  that  children  break  their  toys  in  order  to 
see  how  they  are  made  inside;  this  shows  that  the  exercise  of  their  intellect 
interests  them  more  than  playing  with  an  object  that  is  often  irrational.  But 
children  are  not,  as  is  generally  believed,  naturally  destructive;  on  the  contrary, 
their  instinct  is  to  preserve.  This  is  seen  in  the  way  in  which  they  save  little 
objects  that  they  have  acquired  by  themselves;  and  in  the  "Children's  Houses," 
we  have  also  seen  it  in  the  way  that  they  preserve  unharmed  even  the  most 
trivial  scrap  of  paper,  although  free  to  tear  it  up,  so  long  as  that  scrap  of  paper 
helps  them  to  exercise  their  thoughts. 

Here  we  see  the  great  difference  between  the  healthy,  normal  child  who 
employs  himself  in  the  way  that  pleases  him,  and  is  attentive  and  tranquil;  and 
another  child  who,  equally  healthy  and  normal,  is  obliged  to  do  what  other 
people  wish  him  to  do.,  and  is  restless,  and  troublesome  and  cries. 

To  aid  the  physical  development  of  the  child  under  the  guidance  of  natural 
laws  is  to  favour  his  health  and  his  growth;  to  aid  his  natural  psychic  tendencies 
is  to  render  him  more  intelligent. 

This  principle  has  been  intuitively  recognised  by  all  pedagogists,  but  the 
practical  application  of  it  was  not  possible,  excepting  under  the  guidance  of 
scientific  pedagogy,  founded  upon  a  direct  knowledge  of  the  human  individual. 

To-day  it  is  possible  for  us  to  establish  a  regime  of  liberty  in  our  schools,  and 
consequently  it  is  our  duty  to  do  so. 


444  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Whenever  a  child  exhibits  anomalies  of  character  that  do  not  signify  rebellion 
against  irrational  methods  of  education,  and  are  not  expressions  of  a  struggle 
for  liberty,  he  represents  the  unhappy  effect  of  some  pathological  cause,  or  of 
some  social  error,  that  has  only  too  fatally  accomplished  its  corruptive  task. 

This  is  what  the  biographic  history  will  reveal! 

As  a  general  rule,  a  bad  child  should  be  taken  to  see  a  physician,  because  it  is 
almost  certain  that  he  is  a  sick  child. 

But  the  treatment  of  such  maladies  is  very  often  mainly  pedagogical;  curative 
pedagogy,  however,  must  absolutely  abolish  punishment. 

We  now  know  as  a  fact  absolutely  established  in  sociology  that  the  fear  of 
punishment,  of  torture  and  even  of  death  does  not  avail  to  diminish  crime,  nor 
the  imperious  manifestation  of  human  passions. 

Brigandage  is  not  repressed  by  cutting  off  heads,  but  by  civilization  in  all  its 
forms  of  industry,  intercommunication,  etc. 

And  this  principle  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  children;  harshness  of 
methods  and  severity  of  punishment  will  not  avail  to  inculcate,  and  still  less 
to  create,  goodness.  Man  is  conquered  through  kindness  and  gentleness;  among 
all  the  beatitudes,  that  of  inheriting  the  earth  (i.e.,  of  winning  over  their  fellow- 
men)  is  given  to  the  meek:  blessed  are  the  meek,  for  they  shall  inherit  the  earth. 

We  know  that  hypocrisy,  adulation  and  seduction  are  criminal  means  by 
which  man  seeks  to  deceive  his  fellow  men  to  his  own  profit;  but  they  are  based 
upon  gentleness;  it  would  never  occur  to  anyone  to  seduce  and  to  conquer 
hypocritically,  with  the  help  of  violence.  Because  the  weak  point  in  man,  that 
to  which  he  is  most  susceptible,  is  gentleness,  praise,  caresses.  We  have  seen 
that  the  psychic  stimulus  needed  to  augment  human  activity,  to  arouse  an 
apathetic  person  to  action,  and  even  to  produce  a  condition  of  flourishing 
growth  in  a  child,  is  the  pleasant  stimulus  of  kindness  and  caresses.  The 
mother's  caress,  like  the  mother's  milk,  is  a  means  of  stimulating  the  child  to  a 
more  complete  nutrition  and  vitality.  And  the  entire  category  of  physiological 
weaklings,  such  as  the  defectives,  epileptics  and  criminals,  have  a  proportionately 
greater  need  of  such  stimulus  than  normal  individuals;  consequently,  how  can 
coercion  ever  be  expected  to  restore  such  unbalanced  personalities  to  their 
proper  equilibrium?  Those  whom  we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  oppressing  with 
severity  and  punishment  are  the  very  ones  most  in  need  of  the  stimulus  of 
affection.  Indeed,  it  is  only  the  strong  man  and  the  hero  who  can  pass  un- 
scathed through  persecution;  the  weak  are  left  broken,  down-trodden,  or  slain. 

Sursum  Corda. — Always  strive  to  uplift,  never  to  depress. 

A  beautiful  theory  and  a  humane  idea.  But  is  it  practicable,  and  to  what 
extent?  In  short,  what  can  be  done  practically,  for  instance,  in  the  exceedingly 
difficult  case  of  juvenile  delinquents,  in  order  to  correct  their  evil  tendencies 
and  save  them  from  their  waywardness,  without  coercion? 

But  what  are  evil  tendencies  of  the  mind?  With  that  one  phrase  we  are 
trying  to  embrace  and  ostensibly  bind  together  a  quantity  of  widely  different 
effects. 

The  study  of  the  individual  should  suggest  to  us  the  particular  method  of 
education  required  by  him.  Meanwhile,  in  regard  to  the  question  of  juvenile 
delinquents,  a  wide  road  leading  straight  back  to  first  causes,  has  been  opened 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        445 

by  the  pathological  factor.  Who,  for  instance,  does  not  know  that  the  conduct 
and  the  sentiments  of  an  individual  may  become  unbalanced  through  the  effects 
of  poison  or  disease?  This  takes  us  at  once  into  the  field  of  nervous  or  mental 
pathology:  the  first  symptom  of  paralytic  dementia  is  not  the  trembling,  or 
alteration  of  speech,  or  interruption  of  certain  reflex  actions,  or  muscular  weak- 
ness, nor  the  real  and  actual  delirium.  The  symptom  which  first  manifests 
itself  as  an  indication  of  profound  disturbance  in  the  personality  of  the  un- 
fortunate victim  of  this  cruel  disease  is  an  almost  unheralded  alteration  of  the 
natural  character  and  conduct.  The  man  who  hitherto  has  been  a  good  husband 
and  father,  becomes  a  profligate,  spendthrift  and  gambler;  the  man  who  has 
hitherto  been  most  scrupulous  in  his  language  and  in  his  sexual  conduct  becomes 
foul-mouthed  and  obscene;  the  man  who  was  a  kind  and  affectionate  husband 
becomes  violent  and  aggressive  toward  his  wife.  Anyone  wishing  to  consider 
these  preliminary  symptoms  of  paralytic  dementia  as  evil  tendencies  of  the  mind, 
would  strive  in  vain  with  appropriate  sermons,  reproofs  and  punishments  to 
make  the  sick  man  repent  and  come  back  to  his  former  state! 

Let  us  pass  on  to  another  example.  There  is  no  one  who  is  not  aware  of 
the  effects  of  alcohol.  There  are  persons  who,  when  in  a  state  of  intoxication, 
commit  actions  that  are  worse  than  reprehensible,  even  criminal;  actions  which 
the  individual  himself  deplores  as  soon  as  the  poisonous  effects  have  passed 
away.  Kind-hearted  persons  go  so  far  as  to  maltreat  their  own  children,  even 
when  they  are  little  babies;  they  commit  violent  and  degrading  acts  that  often 
make  them  shed  tears  of  repentance  as  soon  as  they  become  aware  of  them. 
Well,  if  we  should  try  to  make  such  a  person  understand,  while  he  is  still  in  a  state 
of  intoxication,  that  his  actions  are  improper,  it  would  be  wasted  effort.  It  is 
better  to  let  the  matter  pass,  or  else  to  give  him  treatment  for  his  alcoholic 
condition,  which  is  the  cause  of  his  misconduct. 

And  passing  on  to  another  class  of  cases,  does  not  everyone  know  that  when 
people  are  afflicted  with  a  diseased  liver,  their  character  alters,  they  become 
jealous,  quarrelsome,  hypochondriac,  melancholy?  It  would  be  useless  to  tell 
such  persons  that  they  were  formerly  more  tractable  and  morally  superior;  they 
are  already  sufficiently  afflicted  without  having  us,  who  are  in  good  health, 
aggravate  them  with  our  useless  preaching.  And  analogously,  it  is  well  known 
that  when  hysteria  attacks  a  woman  it  may  transform  her  from  a  virtuous 
and  modest  person  to  an  unhappy  creature,  compelled  by  her  physical  condition 
to  forget  herself  and  compromise  the  unquestioned  propriety  of  her  past  life; 
or  again,  it  may  change  her  from  a  gentle  soul  to  an  insupportable  fury,  or  it 
may  actually  develop  into  such  pronounced  delirium  as  to  necessitate  her  con- 
finement in  an  insane  asylum.  In  this  case  also,  it  is  the  malady  that  demands 
treatment,  since  it  is  .the  sole  cause  of  the  sad  manifestations  of  a  change  in 
character. 

Now,  the  pathological  cause  most  frequently  associated  with  criminal  mani- 
festations, is  undoubtedly  epilepsy.  Lombroso  himself  attributed  a  vast  influ- 
ence to  this  etiological  factor  of  criminality;  and  every  day  this  far-sighted 
intuition  of  the  master  is  confirmed  and  made  clearer.  The  epileptic  is  not 
always  a  criminal,  nor  does  the  criminal  always  show  the  classic  convulsive 
symptoms.  There  are  cases  of  epilepsy  in  which  the  symptoms  are  attenuated 

29 


446  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

or  latent  or  replaced  by  different  but  equivalent  symptoms.  It  is  frequently 
necessary  to  diagnose  an  epileptic  character  from  impulsive  tendencies  and  from 
long  protracted  nocturnal  enuresis  in  childhood.  De  Sanctis  has  lately  been  able 
to  prove  in  his  hospital  practice  that  there  are  many  children  who  have  un- 
mistakable epilepsy  of  the  classic  type,  with  violent  accesses,  but  without 
criminal  tendencies;  at  a  certain  age  the  convulsions  cease,  the  patient  is  appar- 
ently cured:  but  he  has  become  a  criminal.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  children 
with  immoral  tendencies,  destructive,  violent,  incorrigible;  one  would  say  that 
these  were  clear  cases  of  predisposition  to  crime;  all  at  once  a  genuine  epileptic 
attack  occurs,  followed  by  other  repeated  attacks;  the  criminal  tendencies  dis- 
appear; the  patient  is  simply  an  epileptic.  In  these  cases,  we  have  successive 
forms  of  epileptic  equivalence.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  therefore,  the  proper 
course  would  be  to  treat  the  patient  for  epilepsy,  as  being  the  cause  of  the  apparent 
"evil  tendencies  of  mind."  And  hence  one  notable  side  of  the  great  problem 
of  the  moral  education  of  juvenile  criminals  is  transformed  fundamentally  into 
this  other  problem:  "Can  epilepsy  be  treated  and  cured?" 

Up  to  the  present,  the  treatment  of  epilepsy  is  a  problem.  While  thera- 
peutics prescribe  bromides  and  warm  baths,  pedagogy  is  to-day  following  a 
very  different  course  with  a  combined  treatment  of  hygiene  and  education. 
Benedickt,  and  following  him,  the  principal  authorities  among  medical  specialists, 
are  at  present  condemning  the  use  of  depressing  bromides,  which  hide  the  attacks 
as  an  anesthetic  hides  pain,  but  do  not  cure  them.  The  cure,  says  Benedickt, 
depends  upon  hygienic  life  in  the  open  air  in  order  to  absorb  the  poisons,  and  upon 
graded  work,  provided,  however,  that  the  malady  is  still  recent  and  has  not 
assumed  a  chronic  form.  Two  principles  of  much  importance:  the  malady  must 
be  of  recent  occurrence!  Consequently,  it  is  only  in  the  period  of  childhood  that  we 
can  attempt  the  treatment  of  the  great  majority  of  those  predisposed  to  crime, 
with  any  hope  of  effecting  a  cure!  A  declaration  of  tremendous  interest  for  the 
defense  of  society.  But  the  treatment  must  be  pedagogic.  Accordingly,  we  have 
returned  to  the  point  of  departure.  We  began  by  asking:  "How  are  we  to  edu- 
cate them"?  A  course  of  reasoning  led  us  along  this  different  road,  "it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  them  treatment."  But  the  treatment  consists  in  educating  them. 
Well,  from  all  this  we  can  so  far  extract  one  unassailable  principle;  in  their  edu- 
cation all  coercive  measures  must  be  absolutely  abolished,  because  nervous  and 
convulsive  maladies  are  most  successfully  treated  with  gentleness  and  quiet;  it  is 
evident  that  all  emotion,  all  fear,  all  nervous  exhaustion,  all  punishment  in  short, 
no  matter  how  mild  or  just  it  may  be,  would  seem  to  be  prohibited  in  pedagogic 
treatment. 

Accordingly,  it  is  necessary  to  approach  the  question  anew;  what  is  needed  is 
to  set  the  nervous  system  in  order,  to  calm  it,  to  restore  its  equilibrium.  Bene- 
dickt says:  this  is  to  be  achieved  through  work,  rationally  measured  and  graded; 
hence,  manual  training,  as  organised,  for  example,  in  the  Reformatory  of  San 
Michele,  constitutes  of  itself  a  moral  cure;  it  concurs  in  readjusting  the  nervous 
system  by  reinforcing  it. 

However,  we  must  not  generalise  over  such  complex  questions;  if  the  patho- 
logical factor,  and  more  especially  epilepsy,  constitutes  a  great  centre  of  biologic 
causes  producing  individuals  predisposed  to  crime,  we  cannot  conclude  that 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        447 

there  is  a  constant  correspondence  between  epilepsy  and  criminality.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  that  among  these  predisposed  we  shall  almost  always  find  some 
who  are  suffering  from  a  taint,  or  from  dystrophy,  due  to  tuberculosis  or  syphilis; 
in  short,  the  minus  habens,  the  physiological  proletariat. 

The  benefit  wrought  by  education  consists  not  only  in  contributing  to  the 
real  and  actual  cure,  as  in  the  case  of  epilepsy;  but  also  in  the  corrective,  as 
well  as  curative,  effect  upon  the  personality.  The  abnormal  mentality  which  < 
generally  accompanies  degenerate  or  epileptic  conditions  requires  special  methods 
of  education,  which  in  many  cases  must  absolutely  exclude  all  forms  of  coercion. 
Mental  hygiene,  an  abundance  of  psychic  stimulus,  partly  intellectual  (chiefly 
through  objective  demonstration)  and  partly  moral  (in  the  form  of  praise  and 
gentle  caressing  treatment),  are  indispensable  accompaniments  of  such  education. 
An  abnormal  mentality  almost  always  accompanies  defects  of  the  mind ;  from  the 
hypochondriac  or  the  epileptic  to  the  imbecile  and  the  idiot,  the  abnormal  men- 
tality builds  itself  up  from  inaccurate  perceptions,  and  hence  more  or  less  from 
illusions;  a  deficiency  of  reasoning  power  or  a  half  delirious  condition  completes 
the  fatal  organisation  of  a  mode  of  thought  which  renders  such  an  individual 
unfitted  for  his  environment.  We  have  seen  an  example  of  this  in  the  boy  whose 
clinical  history  was  read  in  class;  his  perceptions  were  inexact,  consequently 
colours,  odours,  and  sounds  reached  him  in  a  manner  somewhat  different  from  our 
perception  of  them;  his  mental  world  must  therefore  be  differently  constructed 
from  ours.  Defectives  frequently  pass  by  objects  without  obtaining  any  impres- 
sion of  them,  or  else  transform  what  impression  they  do  get  into  a  false  idea. 
Even  their  sensations  of  touch  and  pain  are  different  from  the  normal.  Hence, 
they  do  not  feel  as  we  do,  and  are  often  inaccessible  to  the  anguish  of  pain  which 
refines  human  nature  by  sometimes  raising  it  to  the  point  of  heroism.  And 
because  we  have  learned  through  our  own  sufferings  to  understand  the  meaning 
of  pity,  altruism  and  solidarity,  these  unhappy  beings  differ  from  us  even  in 
their  relation  to  society.  Their  scanty  powers  of  logic  lead  them  to  fall  openly 
into  errors,  which  provoke  vindictive  retaliation  on  our  part  that  tends  in  the 
ultimate  analysis  to  isolate  these  unfit  beings  from  social  intercourse. 

To  us,  their  whole  conversation  is  a  series  of  falsehoods,  because  it  does  not 
correspond  to  what  we  ourselves  see  and  feel.  An  understanding  between  them 
and  us  becomes  steadily  more  difficult,  in  proportion  as  we  continue  to  perfect 
ourselves  in  our  individual  evolution,  while  their  unhappy  state  is  steadily 
aggravated  through  the  formidable  struggles  and  persecutions  which  they  meet  in 
an  environment  to  which  they  are  unadaptable.  For  instance,  we  saw  that  one 
of  the  boys  who  has  been  studied  in  class,  had  committed  his  most  reprehensible 
acts  as  a  result  of  false  logic.  "Why  do  you  kill  all  the  pigeons?"  "To  make 
them  keep  still.'*  "Why  do  you  beat  your  little  sister?"  "Because  she  won't 
work  like  the  others."  (The  sister  in  question  was  only  eighteen  months  old!) 
Well,  he  showed  in  this  way  that  he  had  learned  something  from  the  corrections 
that  he  had  received.  They  had  punished  him  so  much  for  being  restless,  and  so 
much  because  he  did  not  want  to  work,  that  he  finally  applied  his  acquired  zeal 
to  correcting  others  in  the  way  that  his  defective  logic  dictated.  And  similarly, 
after  seeing  how  they  weigh  objects  with  a  steel-yard — also  a  form  of  work — it 
occurred  to  him  to  stick  the  hook  into  his  little  sister,  in  order  to  weigh  her;  and 


448  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

having  learned  that  useful  work  is  paid  for  in  money,  which  serves  to  buy  the 
necessities  of  life,  he  stole  all  the  money  that  he  could  find  at  home,  and  gave  it 
to  the  motormen  on  the  tram-cars,  who  in  his  opinion  perform  the  most  useful 
work  in  the  world. 

I  once  had  occasion  to  study  a  paranoiac  patient  in  the  asylum  for  the 
criminal  insane,  who  had  spent  twenty  years  in  prison  before  his  insanity  became 
so  pronounced  as  to  cause  his  removal  from  one  place  of  restraint  to  the  other. 
He  had  killed  his  betrothed,  out  of  jealousy,  so  he  said,  but  he  narrated  the 
tragic  deed  with  a  fullness  of  detail  and  a  readiness  of  phrase — his  lurking  in 
ambush,  the  unfortunate  girl's  approach,  her  fall  under  the  blows  of  the  cobbler's 
knife — that  proved  the  cold-blooded  calculation  with  which  the  crime  was 
committed. 

This  man  was  convinced  that  he  possessed  such  oratorical  gifts  that  if  he 
had  pleaded  his  own  case  in  place  of  his  attorney,  the  persuasive  magic  of  his 
eloquence  would  have  resulted  in  his  acquittal.  The  lawyer  had  advised  him  not 
to  speak  arid  the  prisoner  was  sentenced  to  a  term  of  thirty  years.  The  appeal 
to  the  Court  of  Cassation  was  denied.  The  result  was  that  in  his  desperation 
at  the  failure  of  his  defence,  and  more  particularly  because  he  had  lost  the  chance 
of  showing  his  oratorical  powers  in  public,  he  conceived  the  idea  that  the  only 
way  by  which  he  could  come  into  court  again,  and  speak  for  himself,  and  force 
them  to  acquit  him,  was  to  commit  another  murder.  And  he  actually  sprang 
at  his  lawyer's  throat,  armed  with  a  nail,  meaning  to  kill  him.  Thus  we  see 
how  paranoiac  delirium,  and  defective  reasoning  powers,  sad  evidences  of 
pathological  conditions,  combined  to  create  the  most  cynical  and  repellant  of 
all  criminal  types. 

Accordingly  the  treatment  of  the  pathological  condition,  and  the  education 
of  the  mentality  in  children  who  are  thus  predisposed,  constitute  a  great  work 
on  behalf  of  the  defence  of  society. 

Well,  this  is  precisely  what  scientific  pedagogy  is  trying  to  do,  through  a 
rational  education  of  the  senses:  to  correct  false  perceptions  and  straighten  out 
the  warped  and  twisted  mentality  of  abnormal  children;  and  little  by  little, 
through  repetition  of  the  same  lessons  under  different  forms,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  cooperation  of  all  the  senses,  the  perception  of  objects  tends  to  ap- 
proach nearer  and  nearer  to  the  normal.  Meanwhile,  hygienic  or  medical  treat- 
ment may  be  used  to  correct  the  accompanying  physical  defects. 

Accordingly,  we  are  able  to  modify  an  abnormal  personality  by  means  of 
rational  medico-pedagogic  treatment;  and  it  is  by  this  means  alone,  and  not 
through  destructive  coercion,  that  we  may  hope  to  approach  the  greatly 
desired  goal. 

Lastly,  it  is  also  necessary,  in  the  etiology  of  crime,  to  take  into  consideration 
the  environment,  the  bad  example,  the  brutality,  the  absence  of  affection,  all  of 
which  are  things  which  might  well  pervert  the  mind  of  even  a  normal  individual; 
and  when  such  conditions  exist,  the  removal  of  the  transgressor  to  a  different 
environment  where  he  may  have  the  benefit  of  physical,  intellectual  and  moral 
hygiene,  may  result  in  completely  transforming  him.  In  these  sad  cases  nothing 
short  of  the  profoundest  love  will  serve  to  redeem  and  even  transform  into  a 
hero  the  man  who  has  fallen  into  evil  ways  through  misfortune. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        449 

No  one  can  any  longer  believe  that  coercive  measures  should  be  added  to  the 
cruelty  of  the  environment  which  oppresses  the  transgressor.  If  he  has  gone 
astray  in  the  midst  of  sorrow  it  will  be  only  through  consolation  that  he  can  be 
born  again  to  a  new  life;  if  he  lost  the  straight  path  amid  arid  wastes,  nothing 
short  of  a  purifying  and  assuaging  spiritual  water  will  enable  him  to  recover 
his  path.  As  a  sign  of  our  humanity  let  us  keep  a  smile  upon  our  lips  and  our 
hearts  free  of  all  harshness  of  offense  or  defense;  our  weapons  are  intelligence 
and  love  and  it  is  only  by  these  weapons  that  we  can  become  conquerors. 

But,  it  may  be  answered,  granted  that  the  education  of  abnormal  persons, 
and  more  especially  juvenile  delinquents,  constitutes  a  complex  work  in  which 
medicine,  a  special  environment,  and  the  methods  of  scientific  pedagogy  contrib- 
ute harmoniously  through  diverse  ways  to  the  ultimate  goal:  yet  in  actual 
practice  how  are  we  to  intervene  to  render  docile  these  rebels  whom  society 
itself,  with  all  the  forces  at  its  disposal,  recognises  as  dangerous  and  condemns 
to  isolation?  In  short,  it  is  argued,  a  more  direct  method  will  be  required  for 
their  moral  education;  a  clear-cut  method  to  offset  that  equally  direct  form 
consisting  of  coercion  and  punishment  that  are  now  the  consequence  of  the 
reprehensible  act.  Under  all  the  conditions  to  be  considered  in  regard  to  the 
biopathological  factors  and  the  social  environment,  there  still  remains  another 
element  and  the  most  evident  of  all,  namely,  the  immediate  and  practical  in- 
fluence exerted  directly  upon  the  minds  of  wayward  children.  We  may  say 
quite  truly  that  beneath  the  pathological  facts  and  the  social  injustices,  there 
exists  something  more  profound  which,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  we  may  call 
the  soul  of  humanity.  Something  which  responds  from  soul  to  soul,  which  may 
be  aroused  from  the  depths  of  subconsciousness  like  a  surprise,  which  may  be 
touched  and  reveal  itself  in  an  outburst  of  affection  previously  hidden  and  un- 
suspected. Unknown  profoundities  of  the  spirit,  that  seem  to  merge  into  the 
eternity  of  the  universe  itself  and  unexpectedly  produce  new  forms  as  in  a 
chemical  reaction.  And  this  is  what  we  really  mean  by  "moral  education." 

Well,  in  order  to  accomplish  such  a  lofty  work,  we  do  not  need  to  find  a 
method.  Method  is  always  more  or  less  mechanical.  Here,  on  the  contrary,  is 
the  supreme  expression  of  human  life — an  evocation  of  the  superman.  What  we 
need  to  find  is  not  a  method,  but  a  Master. 

Se"guin,  in  his  glorious  treatise  on  scientific  pedagogy,  dedicates  a  chapter  to 
the  training  of  the  teacher  of  defective  children.  The  teacher  of  abnormal  pupils 
is  not  an  educator,  he  is  a  creator;  he  must  have  been  born  with  special  gifts,  as 
well  as  to  have  perfected  himself  for  this  high  task.  He  ought,  says  Se"guin, 
to  be  handsome  in  person,  and  strong  as  well,  so  that  he  may  attract  and  yet 
command;  his  glance  should  be  serene,  like  that  of  one  who  has  gained  victories 
through  faith  and  has  attained  enduring  peace;  his  manner  should  be  imperturb- 
able as  that  of  one  not  easily  persuaded  to  change  his  mind.  In  short,  he  ought  to 
feel  beneath  him  the  solid  rock,  the  foundation  of  granite  on  which  his  feet  are 
planted  and  his  steps  assured.  From  this  solid  base,  he  should  rise  command- 
ingly,  like  a  magician.  His  voice  should  be  gentle,  melodious,  and  flexible,  with 
bursts  of  silvery  and  resounding  eloquence,  but  always  without  harshness. 
Se"guin  describes  the  methods  by  which  the  teacher  should  educate  his  own  voice, 
speech  and  gesture;  he  should  take  a  course  in  facial  expression  and  declamation, 


450  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

like  a  great  actor  who  is  preparing  to  win  favor  of  the  select  and  critical  public 
of  the  proudest  capital. 

For,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he  must  attract  the  minds  and  souls  of  human 
beings  who  are  almost  inaccessible,  beings  who  form  whole  armies  in  the  world, 
entire  peoples,  they  are  so  numerous;  powerful  human  armies  that  threaten 
society  with  terrible  punishment  and  bring  about  cruel  executions. 

But  the  perfect  teacher  must  possess  something  more  than  physical  beauty 
and  acquired  art;  he  must  have  the  loftiness  of  a  soul  ardent  for  its  mission; 
yet  even  this  may  be  cultivated  and  perfected.  The  teacher  must  "perfect 
himself"  in  his  moral  nature.  There  are  men,  who  from  the  moment  they 
make  their  appearance,  exert  a  sort  of  fascination;  everyone  else  becomes  silent 
in  their  presence.  It  is  almost  as  though  some  natural  fluid  emanated  from  them 
and  spread  to  the  others,  so  profoundly  does  everyone  feel  the  attraction. 
When  such  a  man  speaks,  the  words  seem,  as  if  by  magic,  to  touch  the  pro- 
foundest recesses  of  the  -heart.  Hypnotists  and  magicans!  Conquerers  of  souls! 
Valient  souls  themselves,*' souls  with  a  great  mission! 

Well,  this  is  more  or  less  what  is  demanded  of  the  teacher  of  abnormal 
children.  He  ought  to  be  conscious  of  his  personal  dignity  and  human  virtue, 
and  of  a  sincere  love  for  the  children  whom  it  is  his  task  to  redeem;  his  own 
greatness  must  overcome  their  wretchedness.  And  if  he  continues  to  perfect 
himself  and  to  mount  toward  the  moral  altitudes,  cultivating  at  the  same  time 
a  love  for  his  own  mission,  he  will,  as  if  by  magic,  become  an  educator;  he  will 
feel  that  a  magic  power  of  suggestion  goes  forth  from  him  and  conquers;  the 
work  of  redemption  will  then  seem  to  accomplish  itself  like  a  conflagration 
which  has  been  kindled  from  some  central  point  and  spreads  in  rolling  flames 
through  the  dried  undergrowth. 

Undoubtedly,  the  guidance  of  science  is  not  everything  to  a  teacher;  the 
better  part  is  given  him  through  his  own  moral  perfectionment. 

4.  The  biographic  history  completes  the  individual  study  of 
the  pupil  and  prepares  for  his  diagnosis:  combining,  to  this  end, 
the  work  of  the  school  with  that  of  the  home. 

Sergi,  in  his  memorable  work,  First  Steps  in  Scientific  Pedagogy, 
expresses  himself  as  follows:  "the  biographic  chart  is  a  methodical 
means  for  learning  to  know  the  body  and  spirit  of  the  pupil  through 
direct  observations.  .  .  .  And,  since  pupils  may  be  classified 
according  to  tendencies,  character  and  intelligence,  the  master 
may  rationally  divide  them  into  various  groups,  to  which  he  will 
give  varied  treatment,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  each 
group  shows  the  greatest  need  of  education.  .  .  .  And  he  will 
place  himself  in  closer  association  with  the  pupils'  families,  who 
should  communicate  to  him  their  earliest  observations  regarding 
the  physical  and  psychological  nature  of  their  children." 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  anthropological  movement,  through 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        451 

the  inquiries  necessitated  by  the  compilation  of  biographic  charts, 
often  proves  illuminating  to  the  members  of  the  family,  in  regard 
to  facts  and  conditions  of  which  they  had  hitherto  remained  igno- 
rant (sexual  hygiene);  in  regard  to  the  view  they  should  take  of 
then*  own  children  (those  who  had  been  regarded  as  "bad,"  and 
who  were  really  illl),  in  regard  to  the  way  they  should  watch 
over  them  and  take  care  of  them,  etc.  Hence  it  has  made  a  begin-  <. 
ning  of  the  practical  application  of  a  pedagogic  principal  that 
hitherto  has  only  been  abstractly  visioned,  of  coordinating  the 
educative  work  of  the  family  with  that  of  the  school.  A  peda- 
gogic institution  which  practically  realizes  this  conception,  which 
was  hitherto  only  a  Utopian  dream  of  pedagogy,  is  the  "  Children's 
House;"  because  by  having  school  in  the  home  and  by  having 
teachers  and  mothers  living  together,  it  results  in  harmonizing  the 
environment  of  the  family  with  that  of  the  school,  for  the  further- 
ance of  the  great  mission  of  education. 

5.  The  biographic  chart  will  furnish  everyone  with  a  docu- 
ment capable  of  guiding  him  in  his  own  subsequent  self-education. 

Sergi  says  further  in  the  work  above  quoted: 
"The  biographic  chart  should  become  a  precious  document  to 
every  man,  if  the  sort  of  record  of  which  I  speak  were  continued 
through  a  series  of  years,  from  the  kindergartens  upward  through 
the  entire  course  of  the  secondary  schools,  because  it  would  con- 
tain, in  compact  and  methodical  form,  the  history  of  his  physical 
and  mental  life,  and  he  would  find  it  of  inestimable  advantage 
both  in  practical  life  and  in  his  various  social  relations." 

6.  Lastly,  the  biographic  chart  with  its  gathering  of  positive 
data,  prepares  a  great  body  of  scientific  material  which  will  be 
useful,  not  alone  to  pedagogy,  but  also  to  sociology,  medicine,  and 
jurisprudence." 

And  in  the  same  aforesaid  work,  Sergi  adds:  "If,  for  example, 
we  should  gather"  (under  the  guidance  of  his  biographic  chart) 
"biographic  notes  in  the  city  of  Rome  alone  and  in  the  elementary 
schools  for  both  sexes,  we  should  have  for  a  single  year,  an  average 
of  fifty  thousand  observations,  taken  on  entering  and  leaving 
school;  if  we  could  have  them  throughout  the  whole  course  of 
elementary  instruction,  the  number  of  observations  would  amount 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 

"Then  we  should  be  able  to  see  in  every  social  class  all  the 
individual  variations  in  physical  and  physiological  condition  which 


452  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

contribute  to  the  development  of  the  intelligence  and  to  the  manifes- 
tations of  sentiments  which  play  an  active  part  in  practical  life. 
And  all  this  would  have  a  value  of  a  sociological  character." 

This  conception  of  Sergi's  is  precisely  one  of  the  scientific  aspects  of  bio- 
graphic histories  that  is  of  the  highest  importance,  provided  that  they  could 
be  recorded  in  so  simple  a  manner  as  to  render  the  researches  practically  possible, 
and  provided,  also,  that  they  could  be  gathered  with  a  scientific  uniformity  of 
method  designed  to  render  international  researches  harmonious.  We  are  certainly 
still  very  far  removed  from  the  time  when  international  pedagogical  congresses 
will  be  held  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  single  model  form  of  biographic 
chart  for  each  of  the  various  grades  in  school;  and  also  an  agreement  as  to  the 
technical  method  of  taking  the  anthropological  measurements!  Before  arriving 
at  this  point  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  many  tentative  efforts  and  experiments. 

But  a  truly  scientific  sociology,  as  well  as  pedagogy,  ought  to  emanate  from 
such  a  study  of  human  beings  in  the  course  of  formation,  because  such  an  enor- 
mously large  number  of  observations  as  could  be  gathered  in  school,  will  reveal 
to  us  the  biologico-social  mechanism  through  which  those  activities  are  formed 
that  are  destined  to  promote  the  progress  of  humanity  and  civilisation  (the  new 
generations). 

Medicine  and  the  biological  sciences  in  general  entered  upon  a  new  era  of 
exceedingly  rapid  progress  when  the  microscope  made  possible  the  study  of 
histology  and  bacteriology;  well,  the  researches  in  regard  to  the  individual  consti- 
tute the  histology  and  bacteriology  of  social  science!  When  Le  Play,  in  his 
great  work,  Les  Ouvriers  Europeens,  instituted  the  "family  monograph,"  i.e., 
the  study  of  household  accounts  as  a  basis  for  "positive  sociology,"  he  was  con- 
sidered as  the  founder  of  a  true  social  science.  Because  the  true  needs  of  men,  the 
mechanism  through  which  are  determined  the  various  personalities  that  after- 
ward react  upon  society  as  creative  or  destructive  forces,  can  be  discovered  only 
through  studying  minutely  such  needs  and  mechanisms,  individual  by  individual, 
family  by  family.  If  Le  Play's  method,  and  consequently  positive  social  science, 
have  not  as  yet  made  much  progress,  this  is  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
penetrating  within  the  family  in  order  to  study  it. 

From  the  bio-psychological  point  of  view,  if  not  from  that  of  the  family 
account  book,  the  biographic  chart  of  the  schools  is  nevertheless  a  practical 
means  of  contributing  to  social  histology;  it  is  a  field  open  to  research  and  one 
which  must  be  crossed  by  every  one  of  the  individuals  who  constitute  society. 
Furthermore,  it  constitutes  a  foundation  for  social  embryogeny;  because  in  the 
school  we  may  study  the  genesis  of  separate  individuals;  the  causes  which  molded 
their  congenital  personality,  and  those  which  brought  about  its  definitive  for- 
mation. In  the  words  of  Le  Play,  indorsed  by  Bodio,  this  is  the  only  positive 
material  from  which  the  legislator  may  draw  his  inspiration  in  order  to  become 
a  true  dispenser  of  justice  to  the  people  and  to  conduct  the  far-sighted  reforms 
that  are  really  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  society. 

Consequently,  the  anthropologic  movement  in  pedagogy  marks  an  aspect  of 
scientific  reform  which  is  universal. 

A  direct  contribution  to  pedagogy  and  at  the  same  time  to  scientific  sociology 


BIOGRAPHICAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  PUPIL        453 

is  given  by  the  biographic  charts  in  the  "Children's  Houses."  Since  this  is  a 
case  of  school  within  the  home,  where  the  mistress,  being  domiciled  with  her 
scholars,  has  them  under  her  charge  from  the  age  of  two  or  three  years,  and 
where  there  is  a  permanent  resident  physician  to  aid  in  the  compilation  of  the 
biographic  charts,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  a  chance  of  practically  applying 
both  the  pedagogic  plans  for  studying  the  pupil,  and  the  social  plans  of  Le  Play, 
who  by  means  of  family  monographs  based  upon  the  family  account  book, 
proposed  to  obtain  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an  index  of  morality,  culture, 
and  individual  needs!  And  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  manner  of  spending  the 
salary,  the  savings,  the  squanderings,  the  purpose  for  which  money  is  spent, 
whether  it  is  for  low  vices,  or  for  vanity,  or  for  aesthetic  or  intellectual  pleasures 
in  general,  etc.,  reveal  the  state  of  civilisation  and  morality  in  which  people 
live.  In  the  "Children's  Houses"  such  a  study  of  the  family  is  easy  because 
it  is  revealed  of  its  own  accord,  since  the  families  are  in  contact  with  the  school ; 
consequently,  these  "Children's  Houses"  may  serve  to  lay  a  true  and  practical 
foundation  for  embryogenesis  and  social  histology.  In  short,  the  importance  of 
research  regarding  the  individual  goes  far  beyond  the  school ;  it  leads  the  way  to 
every  kind  of  social  reform. 

Even  medicine,  like  every  other  science,  is  going  to  build  up  a  firmer  scientific 
basis  through  the  help  of  the  biographic  charts  of  the  schools:  Professor  De 
Sanctis  has  drawn  up  models  for  examinations,  mainly  of  a  medical  nature,  to 
be  used  in  his  asylum-schools  for  defectives;  and  by  thus  following  the  develop- 
ment of  the  pupils,  he  has  succeeded  in  throwing  positive  light  upon  the  bio- 
pathological  mechanism  through  which  an  abnormal  psycopathic  or  neuropathic 
personality  develops ;  while  psychiatry  or  neuropathology  formerly  recorded  noth- 
ing more  of  such  an  abnormal  personality  than  the  episode  of  the  moment  at 
which  the  adult  patient  presented  himself  at  the  clinic.  Even  the  individual 
criminal  has  now  come  to  be  studied  in  relation  to  his  genesis,  and  jurists  who  are 
seeking  a  scientific  basis  for  their  enactments,  should  not  neglect  the  individual 
studies  that  are  being  compiled  in  the  schools  for  defectives.  The  biographic 
chart  introduced  into  the  government  reformatories  in  Italy  will  also  furnish  a 
direct  contribution  to  social  histology,  in  regard  to  the  genesis  of  criminal 
personalities. 

Consequently,  the  reform  which  has  begun  with  the  introduction  of  an  anthro- 
pological movement  into  the  school  and  the  establishment  of  biographic  charts, 
is  nothing  less  than  a  reform  of  science  as  a  whole.  Medicine,  jurisprudence, 
and  sociology  as  well  as  pedagogy,  are  laying  new  foundations  upon  it. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  TO  ANTHROPOLOGY  FOR  THE 
PURPOSE  OF  DETERMINING  THE  MEDIAL  MEN 

Theory  of  the  Medial  Man. — Measurements  are  used  not  only 
in  anthropology  but  in  zoology  and  botany  as  well;  that  is,  they 
are  applied  to  all  living  creatures;  therefore  anthropometry  might 
to-day  be  regarded  as  a  branch  of  biometry.  The  measurements 
obtained  from  living  beings,  and  the  statistical  and  mathematical 
studies  based  upon  them,  tend  to  determine  the  normality  of 
characteristics;  and  when  the  biometric  method  is  applied  to  man, 
it  leads  to  a  determination  of  the  normal  dimensions,  and  hence  of 
the  normal  forms,  and  to  a  reconstruction  of  the  medial  man  that 
must  be  regarded  as  the  man  of  perfect  development,  from  whom 
all  men  actually  existing  must  differ  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
through  their  infinite  normal  and  pathological  variations. 

This  sort  of  touch-stone  is  of  indisputable  scientific  utility, 
since  we  cannot  judge  of  deviations  from  the  norm,  so  long  as 
normality  is  unknown  to  us.  In  fact,  when  we  speak  of  nor- 
mality and  of  anomalies,  we  are  using  language  that  is  far  from 
exact,  and  to  which  there  are  no  clear  and  positive  corresponding 
.ideas. 

Whatever  has  been  accomplished  in  anthropology  up  to  the 
present  time  in  the  study  of  the  morphology  of  degenerates  and 
abnormals,  has  served  only  to  illustrate  this  principle  very  vaguely 
— that  the  form  undergoes  alteration  in  the  case  of  pathological  in- 
dividuals. It  is  only  now  that  we  are  beginning  to  give  definite 
meaning  to  this  principle,  by  seeking  to  determine  what  the  form 
is,  when  it  has  not  undergone  any  alteration  at  all.  From  this 
fundamental  point  a  new  beginning  must  be  made,  on  more  certain 
and  positive  bases,  of  the  study  of  deviations  from  normality  and 
their  etiology. 

As  far  back  as  1835,  Qu6telet,  in  his  great  philosophical  and 
statistical  work,  Social  Physics  or  the  Development  of  the  Faculties 
of  Man,  for  the  first  time  expounded  the  theory  of  the  "  medial 
man,"  founded  on  statistical  studies  and  on  the  mathematical 

454 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  455 

laws  of  errors.  He  reached  some  very  exact  concepts  of  the 
morphology  of  the  medial  man,  based  upon  measurements,  and 
also  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  of  the  medial  man, 
expounding  an  interesting  theory  regarding  genius. 

But  inasmuch  as  Quetelet's  homme  moyen  was,  so  to  speak, 
at  once  a  mathematical  and  philosophical  reconstruction  of  the 
non-existent  perfect  man,  who  furthermore  could  not  possibly  exist, 
this  classical  and  masterly  study  by  the  great  statistician  was 
strenuously  combatted  and  then  forgotten,  so  far  as  its  funda- 
mental concepts  were  concerned,  and  remembered  only  as  a  scien- 
tific absurdity.  The  thought  of  that  period  was  too  analytical 
to  linger  over  the  great,  the  supreme  synthesis  expounded  by 
QueteUet. 

Mankind  must  needs  grow  weary  of  anatomising  bodies  and 
tracing  back  to  origins,  before  returning  to  an  observation  of  the 
whole  rather  than  the  parts,  and  to  a  contemplation  of  the  future. 
In  fact,  the  thought  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  so  imbued  with 
the  evolutionary  theories  as  set  forth  by  Charles  Darwin,  that  it 
believed  the  reconstruction  of  the  Pithecanthropus  erectus  from  a 
doubtful  bone  a  more  positive  achievement  than  that  of  the 
medial  man  from  the  study  of  millions  of  living  men. 

But  to-day  the  researches  that  we  have  accomplished  in  the 
biological  field  regarding  evolution,  regarding  natural  heredity, 
regarding  individual  variability,  are  leading  biology  as  a  whole 
toward  eminently  synthetic  conclusions;  and  studies  which 
remained  neglected  or  which  were  combatted  in  the  past,  are  be- 
ginning to  be  brought  into  notice  and  properly  appreciated: 
such  studies,  for  instance,  as  Mendel's  theory  and  that  of  Que'te'let. 
Galton,  Pearson,  Davenport,  Dunker,  Heinke,  Ludwig,  and  above 
all  others  De  Vries,  are  in  the  advance  guard  of  modern  biological 
thought.  But  beyond  all  these  scientists,  there  is  one  who  has  an 
interest  for  us  not  only  because  he  is  an  Italian,  but  because  he 
has  reestablished  Que'te'let's  ancient  theory  of  the  medial  man, 
under  the  present-day  guidance  of  biometry :  I  mean  Prof.  Giacinto 
Viola. 

The  Importance  of  Seriation. — Under  the  statistical  method, 
the  basis  of  biometry  is  furnished  by  a  regrouping  of  measurements 
in  the  form  of  series.  We  have  seen  that  Que'te'let's  binomial 
curve  represents  the  symmetrical  distribution  of  subjects  in 
relation  to  some  one  central  anthropometric  measurement. 


456  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Let  us  suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  curve  here  described 
represents  the  distribution  of  the  stature.  If  we  mark  upon  the 
abscissae  the  progressive  measurements,  1.55;  1.56;  1.57;  1.58;  1.59; 
1.60,  etc.  .  .  .  1.75;  1.76;  1.77;  1.78;  1.79;  1.80,  and  on  the  axis 
of  the  ordinates  the  number  of  individuals  having  a  determined 
stature,  the  path  of  the  curve  will  show  that  there  is  a  majority  of 
individuals  possessing  a  mean  central  measurement;  and  that  the 
number  of  individuals  diminishes  gradually  and  symmetrically 
above  and  below,  becoming  extremely  few  at  the  extremes  (ex- 
ceptionally tall  and  low  statures).  When  the  total  number  of 
individuals  is  sufficiently  large,  the  curve  is  perfect  (curve  of  errors) : 
Fig.  156. 

In  such  a  case,  the  general  mean  coincides  with  the  median, 
that  is,  with  the  number  situated  at  the  centre  of  the  basal  line, 
because,  since  all  the  other  measurements,  above  and  below,  are 
perfectly  symmetrical,  in  calculating  the  mean  average  they 
cancel  out.  There  is  still  another  centre  corresponding  to  the 
mean :  the  centre  of  density  of  the  individuals  grouped  there,  because 
the  maximum  number  corresponds  to  that  measurement.  Accord- 
ingly, if,  for  example,  in  place  of  half  a  million  men  whose  measure- 
ments of  stature,  when  placed 
in  seriation,  produced  a  per- 
fect binomial  curve,  we  had 
selected  only  ten  men  or  even 
fewer  from  those  correspond- 
ing to  the  median  line;  the 
general  mean  stature  obtained 
from  those  half  million  men 


FIG.  156  .-The  highest  part  of  this  curve  cor-   and  that  obtained  from  the 

responds  to  the  medial  centre  of  density.         ^en       individuals      WOUld      be 

identical.  For  we  would  have  selected  ten  individuals  possess- 
ing that  mean  average  stature  which  seems  to  represent  a  bio- 
logical tendency,  from  which  many  persons  deviate  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  as  though  they  were  erroneous,  aberrant,  for  a 
great  variety  of  causes;  but  these  aberrant  statures  are  still 
such  that  by  their  excess  and  their  deficiency  they  perfectly  com- 
pensate for  each  other;  so  that  the  mean  average  stature  precisely 
reproduces  this  tendency,  this  centre  actually  attained  by  the  maxi- 
mum t  number  of  individuals.  Supposing  that  we  could  see  to- 
gether all  these  individuals:  those  who  belong  at  the  centre  being 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  457 

numerically  most  prevalent,  will  give  a  definite  intonation  to  the 
whole  mass.  Anyone  having  an  eye  well  trained  to  distinguish 
differences  of  stature  could  mentally  separate  those  prevalent 
individuals  and  estimate  them,  saying  that  they  are  of  mean 
average  stature.  This  curve  is  the  mathematical  curve  of  errors; 
and  it  corresponds  to  that  constructed  upon  the  exponents  of 
Newton's  binomial  theorem  and  to  the  calculation  of  probability. 
It  corresponds  to  the  curve  of  errors  in  mathematics:  for  example, 
to  the  errors  committed  in  measuring  a  line;  or  in  measuring  the 
distance  of  a  star,  etc.  Whoever  takes  measurements  (we  have 
already  seen  this  in  anthropometrical  technique  and  in  the  calcu- 
lation of  personal  error)  commits  errors,  notwithstanding  that  the 
object  to  be  measured  and  the  individual  making  the  measure- 
ments remain  the  same.  But  the  most  diverse  causes;  nerves, 
the  weather,  weariness,  etc.,  causes  not  always  determinable  and 
perhaps  actually  more  numerous  than  could  be  discovered  or 
imagined,  all  have  their  share  in  producing  errors  of  too  much 
and  too  little,  which  are  distributed  in  gradations  around  the  real 
measurement  of  the  object.  But  since  among  all  these  measure- 
ments taken  in  the  same  identical  way  we  do  not  know  which 
is  the  true  one;  the  seriation  of  errors  will  reveal  it  to  us,  for  it 
causes  a  maximum  number  of  some  one  definite  measurement 
(the  true  one)  to  fall  in  the  centre  of  the  aberrations  that  sym- 
metrically grade  off  from  the  centre  itself. 

Viola  gives  some  very  enlightening  examples  in  regard  to 
errors.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  an  artist  skilled  in  modeling 
wished  to  reproduce  in  plaster  a  number  of  copies  of  a  leaf,  which 
he  has  before  his  eyes  as  a  model. 

Tfye  well-trained  eye  and  hand  will  at  one  time  cause  him  to 
take  exactly  the  right  quantity  of  plaster  needed  to  reproduce  the 
actual  dimensions  of  the  leaf;  at  another,  on  the  contrary,  he  will 
take  more  and  at  another  less  than  required. 

By  measuring  or  superimposing  the  real  leaf  upon  the  plaster 
copies,  the  sculptor  will  be  able  to  satisfy  himself  at  once  which 
of  his  copies  have  proved  successful. 

But  supposing,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  real  leaf  has  disap- 
peared and  that  a  stranger  wishes  to  discover  from  the  plaster 
copies  which  ones  faithfully  reproduce  the  dimensions  of  the 
leaf?  They  will  be  those  that  are  numerically  most  prevalent. 

The  same  thing  holds  true  for  any  attempt  whatever  to  attain  a 


458  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

predetermined  object.  For  example,  shooting  at  a  mark.  A  skilful 
marksman  will  place  the  maximum  number  of  shots  in  the  centre, 
or  at  points  quite  near  to  the  centre ;  he  will  often  go  astray,  but  the 
number  of  errors  will  steadily  decrease  in  proportion  as  the  shots 
are  more  aberrant,  i.e.,  further  from  the  centre.  If  a  marksman 
wished  to  practise  in  like  manner  against  some  wall,  for  example, 
on  which  he  has  chosen  a  point  that  is  not  marked,  and  hence  not 
recognisable  by  others,  this  point  thought  of  by  the  marksman, 
may  be  determined  by  studying  the  cluster  of  shots  left  upon  the 
wall. 

In  the  same  way  an  observer  could  determine  the  hour  fixed 
for  a  collective  appointment,  such  as  a  walking  trip,  by  the  manner 
in  which  the  various  individuals  arrive  in  groups;  some  one  will 
come  much  ahead  of  time  because  he  has  finished  some  task  which 
he  had  expected  would  keep  him  busy  up  to  the  hour  of  appoint- 
ment; then  in  increasing  numbers  the  persons  who  come  a  few 
minutes  ahead  of  time  because  they  are  provident  and  prompt; 
then  a  great  number  of  people  who  have  calculated  their  affairs  so 
well  as  to  arrive  precisely  on  time;  a  few  minutes  later  come  those 
who  are  naturally  improvident  and  a  little  lazy ;  and  lastly  come  the 
exceptional  procrastinators  who  at  the  moment  of  setting  forth 
were  delayed  by  some  unexpected  occurrence. 

Causes  of  error  in  the  individual  and  in  the  environment 
interfere  in  like  manner  with  the  astronomer  who  wishes  to  esti- 
mate the  distance  of  the  stars  and  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  repeat 
his  measurements  and  calculations  on  the  basis  of  those  which  show 
the  greatest  probability  of  being  exact. 

Accordingly,  such  distribution  of  errors  is  independent  of  the 
causes  which  produce  them  and  which,  whatever  they  are,  remain 
practically  the  same  at  any  given  time,  and  consequently  produce 
constant  effects  and  symmetrical  errors;  but  it  is  dependent  upon 
the  fact  of  the  existence  of  some  pre-established  thing  (a  measure- 
ment, the  dimensions  of  an  object  to  be  copied,  an  appointed  hour, 
the  centre  of  a  target,  etc.).  In  short,  whenever  a  tendency  is 
established  the  errors  group  themselves  around  the  objective  point 
of  this  tendency. 

In  the  case  of  anthropometry,  as  for  instance,  in  the  curve  of 
stature  given  above,  we  find  that  the  resulting  medial  stature  was 
pre-determined,  e.g.,  for  a  given  race;  but  many  individuals,  for 
various  causes,  either  failed  to  attain  it  or  surpassed  it  to  a  greater 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  459 

or  less  extent;  and  therefore  in  the  course  of  their  development 
they  have  acquired  an  erroneous  stature. 

Consequently,  this  medial  stature  which  still  corresponds  to 
the  mean  average  of  a  very  large  number  of  persons,  is  the  stature 
that  is  biographically  pre-established,  the  normal  stature  of  the 
race. 

If  we  select  individuals  presumably  of  the  same  race  and  in 
sound  health,  the  serial  curve  of  their  statures  ought  to  be  very 
high  and  with  a  narrow  base,  because  these  individuals  are  uniform. 
When  a  binomial  curve  has  a  very  wide  basis  of  oscillations  in 
measurements,  it  evidently  contains  elements  that  are  not  uniform; 
thus,  for  example,  if  we  should  measure  the  statures  of  men  and 
women  together,  we  should  of  course  obtain  a  curve,  but  it  would 
be  very  broad  at  the  base  and  quite  low  at  the  centre  of  density; 
and  a  similar  result  would  follow  if  we  measured  the  statures  of 
the  rich  and  the  poor  without  distinguishing  between  them. 
Since  normal  stature,  including  individual  variations,  has  an  ex- 
ceedingly wide  limit  of  oscillation  (from  1.25  m.  to  1.99  m.),  if  we 
should  measure  all  the  men  on  earth,  we  should  obtain  a  very  wide 
base  for  our  binomial  curve,  which  nevertheless  would  have  a 
centre  of  density  corresponding  to  the  median  line  and  to  the 
general  mean  average. 

Now  this  mean  stature,  according  to  Que'te'let,  is  the  mean 
stature  of  the  European;  and  it  is  that  of  the  medial  man.  But 
if  we  should  take  the  races  separately,  each  one  of  them  would 
have  its  own  binomial  curve,  which  would  reveal  the  respective 
mean  stature  for  each  race.  In  the  same  way,  if  we  took  the 
complex  curve  of  all  the  individuals  of  a  single  race,  and  separated 
the  men  from  the  women,  the  two  resulting  groups  would  reveal 
the  mean  average  male  stature  and  the  mean  average  female  stature 
of  the  race  in  question.  An  analogous  result  would  follow  if  we 
separated  the  poor  from  the  rich,  etc. 

Every  time  that  we  draw  new  distinctions,  the  base  of  the  curves, 
or  in  other  words  the  limits  of  oscillation  of  measurements,  will 
contract,  and  the  centre  of  density  will  rise;  while  the  intermediate 
gradations  (due,  for  example,  to  the  intermixture  of  tall  women 
and  short  men;  or  to  the  overlapping  standards  of  stature  of  various 
kindred  races,  etc.),  will  diminish.  In  short,  if  we  construct  the 
binomial  curve  from  individuals  who  are  uniform  in  sex,  race,  age, 
health,  etc.,  it  not  only  remains  symmetrical  around  a  centre  but 


460 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


the  eccentric  progression  of  its  groups  is  steadily  determined  in 
closer  accordance  with  the  order  and  progression  of  the  exponents 
of  Newton's  binomial. 

However,  a  symmetrical  grading  off  from  the  centre  is  not  the 
same  thing  as  a  symmetrical  grading  off  from  the  centre  in  a  pre- 
determined mode,  i.e.,  that  of  the  binomial  exponents.  The  bi- 
nomial symmetry  is  obtained  through  calculations  of  mathematical 
combinations.  Now,  if  the  fact  of  the  centrality  of  a  prevailing 
measurement  is  to  be  proved  in  relation  to  the  predetermination 
of  the  measurement  itself :  for  example,  in  regard  to  racial  heredity, 
and  hence  is  a  fact  that  reveals  normality,  the  manner  of  distribu- 
tion of  errors — namely,  in  accordance  with  calculations  of  prob- 
ability— might  very  well  be  explained  by  Mendel's  laws  of  heredity, 
which  serve  precisely  to  show  how  the  prevailing  characteristics 
are  distributed  according  to  the  mathematical  calculation  of 
probabilities. 

Accordingly,  the  normal  characteristic  of  race  would  coincide  with 
the  dominant  characteristic  of  Mendel's  hereditary  powers.  The 
characteristic  which  has  been  shown  as  the  stronger  and  more 
potent  is  victorious  over  the  recessive  characteristics  that  are 
latent  in  the  germ.  Meanwhile,  however,  there  are  various 
errors  which,  artificially  or  pathologically,  cause  a  characteristic, 

which  would  naturally 
have  been  recessive,  to 
become  dominant,  or,  in 
other  words,  most  prev- 
alent. 

Whenever  a  binomial 
curve  constructed  from 
a  large  number  of  indi- 
viduals is  found  to  be  ec- 


FIG.   157. — The  shaded  portion  represents  the  eccen- 
tricity of  the  curve,  due  to  the  presence  of  cretins. 


centric;  and  shows,  e.g.,  in  the  case  of  stature,  a  deviation  toward 
the  low  statures,  it  reveals  (see  De  Helguero's  curves)  the  presence 
of  a  heterogeneous  intermixture  of  subjects,  for  example,  of  children 
among  adults,  or,  as  in  the  case  demonstrated  by  De  Helguero, 
an  intermixture  of  pathological  individuals  with  normal  persons 
(Fig.  157). 

The  binomial  curve  obtained  by  De  Helguero  from  the  in- 
habitants of  Piedmont  included,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  great  number 
of  cretins;  they  formed  within  the  great  normal  mass  of  men,  a 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  461 

little  mass  of  individuals  having  a  stature  notably  inferior  to  the 
normal. 

By  correcting  the  eccentric  curve  on  the  left  of  the  accompany- 
ing figure,  and  by  tracing  a  dotted  line  equal  and  symmetrical  to 
the  right  side,  we  obtain  a  normal  binomial  curve;  well,  this  curve 
will  actually  be  reproduced  if  we  subtract  all  the  cretins  from  the 
whole  mass  of  individuals. 

The  section  distinguished  by  parallel  lines  represents  that 
portion  of  the  curve  which  departs  from  the  normal  toward  the 
low  statures,  and  is  due  to  the  cretins;  it  may  be  transformed  into 
a  small  dotted  binomial  curve  at  the  base,  which  is  constructed 
from  the  statures  of  the  cretins  alone. 

Accordingly,  the  symmetrical  binomial  curve  gives  us  a  mean 
average  value  in  relation  to  a  specified  measurement. 

What  has  been  said  regarding  stature  serves  as  an  example; 
but  it  may  be  repeated  for  all  the  anthropometric  measurements,  as 
Viola  has  proved  by  actual  experiment. 

The  sitting  stature,  the  thoracic  perimeter,  the  dimensions  of 
an  entire  limb  or  of  each  and  every  segment  of  it ;  every  particular 
which  it  has  seemed  worth  while  to  take  into  consideration ,  com- 
ports itself  in  the  same  manner;  and  this  is  also  true  of  all  the 
measurements  of  the  head  and  face. 

That  is  to  say,  if  we  make  a  seriation  of  measurements 
relating  to  the  sitting  stature  of  an  indeterminate  number  of  in- 
dividuals, we  find  a  numerical  prevalence  of  those  corresponding 
to  the  medial  measurement  marked  upon  the  axis  of  the  abscissae; 
and  the  number  of  individuals  will  continue  to  decrease  with 
perceptible  symmetry  on  each  side  of  the  centre,  i.e.,  toward  the 
higher  and  lower  statures.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  signi- 
ficance of  the  sitting  stature,  this  binomial  curve  relates  to  indi- 
viduals who  possess  a  normal  physiological  mass  (the  bust ;  centre 
of  density)  and  to  individuals  who  fall  below  or  exceed  that  mass. 
We  have  already,  in  speaking  of  the  types  of  stature,  taken  the 
bust  under  consideration  in  relation  to  the  limbs,  in  order  to 
judge  the  more  or  less  favourable  reciprocal  development;  but 
here  we  obtain  an  absolute  datum  of  normality,  independent  of 
proportional  relations  to  the  body  as  a  whole;  in  other  words,  there 
exists  a  physiological  mass  for  the  human  body  which  is  normal  in 
itself.  The  individuals  whose  sitting  stature  corresponds  to  the 

30 


462  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

medial  measure  of  the  binomial  curve,  are  precisely  those  who 
have  the  normal  development  of  bust. 

The  same  thing  repeats  itself  in  the  case  of  the  thoracic  peri- 
meter, or  the  weight,  or  the  length  of  the  leg,  or  the  cranial  circum- 
ference, etc. 

Hence  we  have  a  means  of  obtaining  the  normal  medial  measure- 
ments by  the  seriation  of  a  number  of  measurements  actually 
obtained  from  living  individuals  the  number  of  whom  should  be 
sufficiently  large  to  enable  us  to  construct  a  perceptibly  symmet- 
rical and  regular  binomial  curve. 

Such  medial  measurements,  although  they  correspond  to  the 
true  mean  average  (as  we  have  already  seen),  are  not  for  this 
reason  unreal,  like  arithmetical  means  which  represent  a  synthetic 
entirety  that  does  not  correspond  to  the  single  individuals  actually 
existing;  the  medial  measurements  obtained  by  seriation  are,  on 
the  contrary,  measurements  that  really  belong  to  living  individuals ; 
namely,  to  that  group  of  individuals  that  possess  this  particular 
measurement.  Therefore,  it  is  not  a  combination,  or  fusion,  or 
abstraction. 

*** 

But  individuals  who  have  one  medial  measurement,  do  not 
necessarily  have  all  the  other  medial  measurements;  that  is  to  say, 
the  individuals  who  find  that  they  belong  on  the  medial  abscissae 
in  relation  to  stature,  do  not  find  themselves  similarly  placed  in 
relation  to  the  sitting  stature,  or  the  thoracic  perimeter,  or  the 
weight,  or  the  cranial  circumference,  etc.  Indeed,  it  is  impossible 
that  all  the  bodily  measurements  of  the  same  individual  should  be 
medial  measurements:  or,  to  express  it  better,  there  has  not  been 
found  up  to  the  present  among  living  individuals,  in  the  whole 
wide  world,  a  man  so  constructed. 

Such  a  man  would  represent  anthropologically  the  medial  man. 

It  is  also  very  rare  to  find  a  man  quite  lacking  in  medial 
measurements :  everyone  has  a  few  central  measurements  and  cer- 
tain others  that  are  eccentric. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  are  men 
who  have  many,  and  even  a  large  majority,  of  the  central 
measurements;  while  the  rest  of  their  measurements  are  eccentric 
or  paracentral. 

One  of  the  objections  which  used  to  be  made  was  that  if  we 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  463 

should  wish  to  unite  all  the  medial  measurements,  they  would  not 
fit  together,  or  rather,  that  a  man  could  not  be  constructed  from 
them;  but  that  the  result  would  be  a  monstrosity.  Nevertheless, 
this  assertion  or  objection  has  proved  to  be  absolutely  fantastic 
and  contrary  to  the  actual  fact. 

Professor  Viola  has  observed  that  men  who  have  a  very  large 
number  of  medial  measurements  are  singularly  handsome. 

More  than  that:  the  medial  man  reconstructed  from  medial 
measurements  really  gathered  from  living  persons,  has  the  identical 
proportions  of  the  famous  statues  of  Greek  art. 

Here,  for  example,  in  Figs.  158  and  159,  facing  page  464, 
we  have  the  medial  man  and  the  Apollo;  even  to  the  eye  of 
the  observer,  they  show  a  marked  similarity  in  proportions. 
The  medial  man  is  very  nearly  the  portrait  of  an  exceedingly 
handsome  young  Roman,  studied  by  Viola;  this  person  possessed 
a  great  majority  of  the  mean  average  measurements;  but  some  of 
his  measurements  did  not  correspond  to  the  normal  averages,  and 
accordingly  Viola  had  them  corrected  by  an  artist  under  the  guid- 
ance of  anthropological  biometry;  and  the  figure  thus  corrected  is 
represented  in  the  drawing  here  given.  Well,  this  drawing 
corresponds  perfectly  to  the  proportions  of  the  Apollo. 

Consequently,  the  mean  average  measurements  do  not  pass 
unnoticed;  it  is  not  alone  the  anthropological  instrument  or 
mathematical  reconstruction  that  reveals  them;  when  presented 
to  the  eye  of  the  intelligent  man,  they  notify  him  that  they  exist, 
they  arouse  in  him  an  ccsthetic  emotion,  they  give  him  the  alluring 
impression  of  the  beautijul. 

When  the  mean  average  measurements  are  found  accumulated 
in  large  numbers  in  the  same  person,  they  render  that  person  the 
centre  of  a  mysterious  fascination,  the  admiration  of  all  other  men. 

Now,  this  coincidence  of  the  beautiful  with  the  average  is 
equivalent  to  a  coincidence  of  the  beautiful  with  normality. 
"This  unforeseen  demonstration,"  says  Viola,  "throws  a  vivid 
light  upon  the  hitherto  obscure  problem  of  the  aesthetic  sense.  .  .  . 
If  a  man  evolves  according  to  normal  laws,  his  proportions  arouse 
an  exceptional  aesthetic  enjoyment." 

Anyone  having  an  eye  trained  to  recognise  the  beautiful,  is 
able  through  his  aesthetic  sensations,  to  pick  out  normality  from  the 
great  crowd  of  biological  errors,  which  is  precisely  what  the 
scientist  does  with  great  weariness  of  measurements  and  calcu- 


464  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

lations.  In  fact,  the  great  artists  recognise  the  beautiful  parts  of  a 
number  of  beautiful  individuals,  and  they  unite  them  all  together 
in  a  single  work  of  art.  The  Greeks  did  this,  they  reconstructed 
the  medial  man,  on  a  basis  of  actual  observation,  and  by  extracting 
all  the  normalities,  all  the  measurements  most  prevalent  in  indi- 
viduals, and  forming  from  them  a  single  ideal  man.  The  Greek 
artists  were  observers;  we  might  call  them  the  positivists  in  art. 
Their  art  is  supreme  and  immortal,  because  they  simultaneously 
interpreted  what  is  beautiful  and  what  is  true  in  life. 

In  short,  medial  measurements  are  true  measurements,  actually 
existing  in  individuals.  No  one  can  acquire  a  true  aesthetic  taste 
by  contemplating  works  of  art.  The  aesthetic  sense  is  trained 
and  refined  by  observing  the  truth  in  nature  and  by  learning  to 
separate  instinctively  the  normal  from  the  erroneous. 

No  other  form  of  art  reproduces  the  subject  so  faithfully  as  the 
Greek;  medieval  and  modern  artists  have  incarnated  their  own 
personal  inspiration,  without  training  themselves  to  that  accurate 
observation  which  refines  the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  when  we  are 
in  the  presence  of  the  truth,  represented  by  normality,  which  is 
the  triumph  of  life. 

Accordingly,  we  may  reconstruct  the  medial  man  from  the 
truth  as  found  in  nature.  Within  the  wide  scale  of  individual 
variations  we  pass  from  men  possessing  few  medial  measurements 
(ugly  men)  to  men  possessing  many  of  them  (handsome  men),  and 
even  a  majority  of  such  measurements  (extremely  handsome). 
Our  sensation  in  the  presence  of  the  ugly  man  is  repulsion,  biological 
pain;  in  the  presence  of  the  handsome  man  we  feel  an  aesthetic 
contentment,  biological  pleasure.  In  this  way  we  take  part  in  the 
mysterious  failures  and  triumphs  of  nature,  as  children  in  the 
great  family  of  life. 

Now,  as  Viola  says,  the  individual  variations  that  group  them- 
selves symmetrically  around  the  medial  measurement  may  be 
divided  into  groups  or  types,  e.g.,  central,  paracentral  and  eccentric, 
both  above  and  below  the  mean.*  Such  types  are  considered  by 
Viola  chiefly  from  the  pathological  point  of  view,  or  rather,  that  of 
the  physical  constitution  and  relative  predisposition  to  disease. 
It  is  only  the  central  type  that  has  such  perfect  harmony  of  parts 
as  to  embody  the  perfection  of  strength  and  physical  health;  as 

*  Viola,  The  Laws  of  Morphological  Correlation  of  the  Individual  Types. 


2.  *• 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  465 

the  type  diverges  from  the  centre,  it  steadily  loses  its  power  of 
resistance  and  becomes  less  capable  of  realising  a  long  life. 

Since  the  measurements  are  extremely  numerous,  it  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  proceed  to  a  separation  of  types,  to  select  some  one 
measurement  to  be  regarded  as  fundamental,  and  in  respect  to 
which  all  others  have  a  secondary  importance ;  and  such  a  measure- 
ment is  found  in  the  one  which  is  associated  with  the  development 
of  the  physiological  man;  namely,  the  sitting  stature.  In  the 
centre  there  is  the  medial  measurement;  little  by  little,  as  we 
withdraw  from  the  centre,  we  approach  on  the  one  side  toward 
macroscelia  and  on  the  other  side  toward  brachyscelia.  It  is 
possible  to  determine  to  within  a  millimetre  the  normality  of  any 
measurement  whatever.  When  this  fundamental  datum  has  once 
been  accepted  as  a  basis  for  the  construction  of  types,  let  us  assume 
that  we  next  add  another  and  secondary  measurement;  for  instance, 
that  of  the  lower  limbs.  By  the  method  of  seriation  we  obtain  a 
measurement  that  is  absolutely  normal  when  considered  by  itself; 
it  is  the  central  measurement.  A  perfectly  formed  and  healthy 
man  ought  to  possess  both  the  medial  sitting  stature  and  the  medial 
length  of  lower  limbs;  in  actual  cases,  however,  it  is  difficult  ot 
find  so  favourable  a  union,  and  the  two  series  of  measurements 
combine  in  various  ways;  showing  a  tendency,  however,  to  unite 
in  such  a  way  that  a  short  bust  goes  with  long  legs,  and  vice 
versa.  The  degree  to  which  this  rule  is  carried  out  produces  two 
types  that  steadily  tend  to  become  more  eccentric;  they  are  the 
macroscelous  and  brachyscelous  types,  or,  as  De  Giovanni  calls 
them,  morphological  combinations.  We  have  only  to  calculate  the 
type  of  stature,  and  that  also  groups  itself  according  to  the  binomial 
curve;  and  thus  gives  us  a  gradation  of  the  combinations  of  parts. 
Viola  notes  that  the  paracentral  individuals  show  characteristics 
quite  different  from  those  of  the  eccentrics;  their  constitution  is 
more  favourable,  and  they  differ  in  respect  to  their  characteristic 
proportions  between  thorax  and  abdomen,  and  in  certain  other 
physiological  particulars  that  are  of  pathological  importance. 

In  this  way  a  method  has  been  built  up  for  determining  mathe- 
matically the  one  absolute  normality;  as  well  as  the  anomalies 
in  all  their  infinite  variety,  which  may,  however,  be  regrouped 
under  types,  on  the  basis  of  their  eccentricities. 

Here  then  we  have,  thanks  to  Viola,  and  under  the  guidance 
of  the  glorious  school  of  De  Giovanni,  a  pathway  indicated,  that 


466  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

is  exceedingly  rich  in  its  opportunities  for  research,  and  that 
may  advance  the  importance  of  anthropometry  side  by  side  with 
that  of  biometry,  the  development  of  which  is  to-day  so  earnestly 
pursued,  especially  in  England. 

*** 

One  of  the  objections  which  may  be  raised  to  the  theory  of  the 
medial  man  is  that  there  cannot  be  any  one  perfect,  human  model 
because  of  the  diverse  races  of  mankind,  each  with  its  own  es- 
tablished biological  characteristics. 

For  instance,  I  believe  that  I  have  proved  that  what  we  con- 
sider as  beautiful  is  distributed  among  different  races;  in  other 
words,  perfect  beauty  of  all  the  separate  parts  of  the  body  is  never 
found  united  in  any  one  race,  any  more  than  it  is  in  any  one  person. 

The  women  of  Latium  who  are  dark  and  dolicocephalic  have 
most  beautiful  faces,  but  their  hands  and  feet  are  imperfect;  the 
brachycephalic  blondes,  on  the  contrary,  are  coarse-featured,  while 
their  hands  and  feet  are  extremely  beautiful.  The  same  may  be 
said  regarding  then-  breasts  and  certain  other  details.  Further- 
more, the  stature  of  the  dolicocephalics  is  too  low  as  compared 
with  what  is  shown  to  be  the  average  stature,  while  the  brachi- 
cephalics  are  similarly  too  tall.  Nevertheless,  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  discover  racial  types  of  such  comparative  purity  as  to 
establish  these  differences:  it  was  by  a  lucky  chance  that  I  suc- 
ceeded in  tracing  out,  at  Castelli  Romani  and  at  Orte,  certain 
groups  of  the  races  that  were  very  nearly  pure.  The  rest  of  the 
population  are,  for  the  most  part,  hybrids  showing  a  confused 
intermingling  of  characteristics. 

In  fact,  pure  types  of  race  no  longer  exist,  least  of  all  where 
civilisation  is  most  intense.  In  order  to  speak  of  types  of  race,  it 
is  necessary  to  go  among  barbaric  tribes;  and  even  this  is  a  relative 
matter,  because  all  the  races  on  earth  are  more  or  less  the  result  of 
intermixture.  Yet  in  civilised  countries  an  occasional  group  of 
pure  racial  stock  may  be  discovered  in  isolated  localities,  as  though 
they  had  found  refuge,  so  to  speak,  from  the  vortex  of  civilisation 
which  is  engulfing  the  races.  Throughout  the  history  of  humanity 
we  may  watch  this  absorption  of  racial  and  morphological  char- 
acteristics, and  the  formation  of  more  and  more  intimate  inter- 
mixtures, leading  to  the  final  disappearance  of  the  original  types  of 
race. 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  467 

When  a  primitive  race  emigrated,  when  men  crossed  over 
from  Africa  to  the  European  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  or  Aryans 
from  oriental  Asia  traversed  the  mountains  and  steppes  of  Russia 
and  the  Balkan  countries,  they  were  on  their  way  to  conquer  terri- 
tory and  to  subjugate  peoples,  but  they  were  also  on  their  way  to 
lose  their  own  type,  the  characteristics  of  their  race.  Yet  even 
this  sacrifice  of  race  was  not  without  compensation :  indeed,  it 
seems  as  though  the  race  loses  through  hybridism  a  large  part  of 
its  ugly  characteristics,  but  retains  and  transmits  for  the  most 
part  the  characteristics  that  are  pleasing.  Unquestionably,  the 
more  civilised  peoples  are  better  looking  than  the  barbarians, 
although  the  history  of  emigration  would  seem  to  indicate  an  al- 
most common  racial  origin. 

When  we  remember  that  in  human  hybridism  the  result  is 
not  always  a  true  and  complete  fusion  of  characteristics,  but  for 
the  most  part  an  intermixture  of  them — so  that,  for  example,  the 
hybrid  has  the  type  of  cranium  belonging  to  one  race,  and  the 
stature  belonging  to  another  race — we  have  the  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  throughout  thousands  of  years  certain  morphological 
characteristics  have  remained  fixed,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  permit 
anthropologists  to  use  them  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  trace  out  the 
origins  of  races.  But  these  characteristics,  while  fixed  in  them- 
selves, are  interchanged  among  individual  hybrids,  who  form  more 
or  less  felicitous  combinations  of  characteristics  belonging  to 
several  races. 

When  we  recall  what  was  said  in  this  regard  concerning  hered- 
ity (general  biological  section)  it  is  necessary  to  conclude  that 
Mendel's  law  must  be  invoked  to  explain  the  phenomenon. 

Human  hybridism,  like  all  hybridism  throughout  the  whole 
biological  field,  falls  under  this  law. 

But  there  is  still  another  phenomenon  that  should  be  noted: 
civilised  men,  who  are  the  most  hybrid  of  all  hybrids  upon  earth, 
have  formed  a  new  type  that  is  almost  unique,  the  civilised  race,  in 
which  one  and  all  resemble  one  another.  It  is  only  logical  to 
believe  .that,  in  proportion  as  facilities  of  travel  become  easier 
and  intermarriage  between  foreign  countries  more  widespread, 
it  will  become  less  and  less  easy  to  distinguish  the  Englishman 
from  the  Frenchman,  or  the  Russian  or  the  Italian;  provided  that 
the  various  hybridisms  in  the  respective  countries  have  developed 
an  almost  uniform  local  type,  so  that  the  general  characteristics  of 


468  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

French  hybridism  may  be  distinguished  from  those  of  English 
hybridism,  etc. 

Even  these  local  hybrid  types,  determining,  as  it  were,  the 
physiognomy  of  a  people,  will  disappear  when  Europe  finally 
becomes  a  single  country  for  civilised  man. 

In  short,  we  are  spectators  of  this  tendency:  a  fusion  or  inter- 
mixture of  characteristics  that  is  tending  to  establish  one  single 
human  type,  which  is  no  longer  an  original  racial  type,  but  the 
type  of  civilisation.  It  is  the  unique  race,  the  resultant  human 
race,  the  product  of  the  fusion  of  races  and  the  triumph  of  all  the 
elements  of  beauty  over  the  disappearance  of  those  ugly  forms 
which  were  characteristic  of  primitive  races. 

Are  the  dominant  forces  in  the  human  germinative  cells  those 
which  bring  a  contribution  of  beauty?  One  would  say  "yes,"  on 
the  strength  of  the  morphological  history  of  humanity. 

There  is  no  intention  of  implying  by  this  that  humanity  is 
tending  toward  the  incarnation  of  perfectly  beautiful  human 
beings,  all  identical  in  their  beauty;  but  they  will  be  harmonious 
in  those  skeletal  proportions  that  will  insure  perfect  functional 
action  of  their  organism.  Harmony  is  fundamental;  the  soft 
tissues,  the  colour  of  hair  and  eyes,  may  upon  this  foundation 
give  us  an  infinite  variety  of  beauty.  "Even  in  music,"  says 
Viola,  "so  long  as  the  laws  of  harmony  are  respected,  there  are 
possibilities  of  melodic  thoughts  of  infinite  beauty  in  gradation 
and  variety;  but  the  first  condition  is  that  the  aforesaid  laws  shall 
be  respected." 

The  soft  and  plastic  tissues  are  like  a  garment  which  may  be 
infinitely  varied:  because  life  is  richer  in  normal  forms  than  in 
abnormal;  richer  in  triumphs  than  in  failures;  and  hence  more 
impressive  in  the  varieties  of  its  beauties  than  in  its  monstrosities. 

Such  philosophic  concepts  of  the  medial  man  are  exceedingly 
fertile  in  moral  significance.  The  ugly  and  imperfect  races  have 
gone  on  through  wars,  conquests,  intellectual  and  civil  advance- 
ment unconsciously  preparing  new  intermarriages  and  higher 
forms  of  love,  which  eliminated  all  that  is  harsh  and  inharmonic, 
in  order  to  achieve  the  triumph  of  human  beauty.  In  fact,  quite 
aside  from  the  heroic  deeds  of  man,  the  constructor  of  civilisation, 
we  are  witnessing  the  coming  of  the  unique  man,  the  man  of  perfect 
beauty,  such  as  Phidias  visioned  in  a  paroxysm  of  aesthetic  emotion. 

A  living  man  who  incarnates  supreme  beauty,  supreme  health, 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  469 

supreme  strength:  almost  as  though  it  were  Christ  himself  whom 
humanity  was  striving  to  emulate,  through  a  most  intimate  brother- 
hood of  all  the  peoples  on  earth. 

*** 

On  the  analogy  of  the  medial  morphological  man,  Que*te"let 
also  conceived  of  the  medial  intellectual  man  and  the  medial  moral 
man. 

The  medial  intellectual  man  is  closely  bound  to  the  thoughts 
of  his  century;  he  incarnates  the  prevailing  ideas  of  his  time;  he 
vibrates  in  response  to  the  majority.  He  is  to  his  nation  and  cen- 
tury, says  Que"telet,  "what  the  centre  of  gravity  is  to  the  body- 
namely,  the  one  thing  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in  order  to 
understand  the  phenomena  of  equilibrium  and  movement."  Con- 
sidered from  the  ideal  side,  the  medial  man  ought  to  centralise 
in  himself  and  keep  in  equilibrium  the  movement  of  thought  of 
his  period,  giving  it  harmonic  form,  in  works  of  art  or  of  science. 
And  it  is  the  capacity  for  accomplishing  this  work  of  synthesis 
that  constitutes  the  inborn  quality  in  the  man  of  genius. 

He  does  not  create;  he  reassembles  in  one  organism  the  scattered 
members,  the  medial  vibrations  of  the  crowd;  he  feels  and  expresses 
all  that  is  new  and  beautiful  and  great  that  is  in  process  of  for- 
mation in  the  men  who  surround  him,  who  are  frequently  uncon- 
scious of  the  beauty  which  is  in  them,  just  as  they  are  unconscious 
of  having  those  normal  predetermined  measurements  of  their 
bodies.  But  whenever  they  discover  in  a  creation  of  thought 
something  of  themselves,  they  are  stirred  to  enthusiasm  at  recognis- 
ing this  something  belonging  to  them  as  forming  part  of  a  har- 
monious whole:  and  they  applaud  the  work  of  art  or  of  science 
which  has  stirred  their  enthusiasm.  The  medial  intellectual  man 
who  has  produced  it  is  a  beneficent  genius  to  humanity  because 
he  aids  its  upward  progress  by  appealing  to  the  better  part  in  each 
individual. 

Now,  there  has  never  existed  a  medial  intellectual  man  who 
sums  up  all  the  thought  of  his  time:  just  as  there  does  not  exist  a 
living  man  so  beautiful  as  to  incarnate  all  the  medial  measure- 
ments. But  the  man  of  genius  is  he  who  does  embody  the  greater 
part  of  such  ideas:  and  he  produces  a  masterpiece  when  he  succeeds 
in  shedding  his  own  individuality  in  order  to  assume  what  is  given 
him  from  without.  Goethe  said  that  it  was  not  he  who  composed 


470  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

Faust,  but  a  spirit  which  invaded  him.  And  the  same  thought 
is  expressed  in  the  autobiographies  of  many  men  of  genius. 

A  well-known  writer  told  me  that  it  sometimes  happened  to 
him,  while  he  was  writing,  to  forget  himself  completely;  at  such 
times  he  no  longer  wrote  the  truth  as  he  saw  and  felt  it  consciously, 
but  transmitted  pure  and  unforeseen  inspiration. 

Such  portions,  said  this  author,  are  judged  by  the  public  as 
containing  the  greatest  degree  of  beauty  and  truth. 

When  a  great  orator  thrills  a  crowd,  he  certainly  does  nothing 
more  than  repeat  what  is  already  in  the  thoughts  of  each  member 
of  that  crowd;  every  individual  present  had,  as  it  were,  in  his 
subconsciousness,  the  same  thought  that  is  expressed  by  the 
orator,  which  was  taking  form  within  him  but  had  not  yet  matured 
and  which  he  would  not  have  had  the  knowledge  or  the  ability 
to  express.  The  orator,  as  it  were,  matures  and  extracts  from 
him  that  new  thought  which  was  taking  shape  within  him;  his 
better  part,  which  after  light  is  shed  upon  it  will  have  the  power 
to  elevate  him.  But  no  orator  could  ever  persuade  a  crowd  with 
ideas  that  do  not  already  exist  in  that  crowd,  and  which  conse- 
quently, are  not  part  of  the  truth  of  their  age. 

The  orator  is  like  the  centre  of  gravity,  inasmuch  as  he  gives  form 
and  equilibrium  to  the  scattered  and  timid  thought  of  the  crowd. 

Carducci*  says  "the  art  of  the  lyric  poet  consists  in  this:  to  ex- 
press what  is  common  to  all  in  the  form  in  which  he  has  created  it 
anew  and  specially  in  his  mind;  or  rather  to  give  to  the  thought 
which  is  peculiar  to  himself  an  imprint  of  universal  understanding, 
so  that  each  one  looking  into  it  may  recognise  himself." 

*** 

When  we  think  of  the  brilliant  concept  of  the  medial  man,  we 
behold  a  fundamental  and  profound  principle:  the  necessity  of 
hybridism  and  consequently  of  a  profound  intermixture  of  races; 
all  of  which  goes  side  by  side  with  the  spread  of  civilisation,  and 
the  increased  facilities  of  traveling  and  of  communication  between 
different  communities.  Connected  with  these  material  advan- 
tages is  the  moral  progress  which  leads  to  a  realisation  of  perfect 
brotherhood  between  men  that  is  rendered  steadily  more  possible 
by  environment,  and  is  sanctioned  little  by  little  by  laws  and  cus- 
toms ;  whereas  at  the  start  it  was  only  an  ethical  or  mystical  theory, 

*  Cited  by  Viola. 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  471 

While  the  physical  formations  of  the  races  are  becoming  merged, 
the  racial  customs  are  also  blending  and  disappearing  in  a  single 
civilisation,  in  one  sole  form  of  thought.  If,  at  one  time,  the 
powerful  race  was  the  one  united  to  its  territory,  faithful  to  its 
customs,  adhering  to  its  moral  code  and  its  religion,  all  this  melts 
away  in  the  presence  of  universal  hybridism  which  actually  means 
the  birth  of  a  new  generation  of  men  and  a  new  outlook  upon 
life. 

When  we  contemplate  the  morphologically  medial  man,  he 
seems  to  stand  as  a  symbol  of  unlimited  universal  progress.  His 
realisation  seems  to  demand  very  lofty  standards  of  morality  and 
civilisation. 

Whereas,  on  the  contrary,  the  survival  of  types  and  of  customs 
and  sentiments  peculiar  to  separate  races,  is  the  expression  of  local 
conditions  that  are  inferior  both  in  morality  and  in  civil  progress. 
As  for  the  innumerable  paracentral  errors  which  form  to-day  a 
large  proportion  of  individual  varieties,  they  are  due  directly  to 
the  imperfection  of  the  environment,  which  does  not  permit  of 
the  natural  development  of  human  life,  and  consequently  inter- 
feres through  a  wide  range  of  methods  and  degrees  with  the 
development  of  ideal  normality. 

Hence,  the  extreme  eccentric  errors  are  the  consequence  of 
diseases  and  far-reaching  social  imperfections  which  lead  to 
genuine  deviations  from  the  normal,  including  pathological  and 
degenerate  malformations,  and  associated  with  them  the  lowest 
forms  of  individual  degradation,  both  intellectual  and  moral. 

All  the  paracentral  errors  and  malformations  are  a  physical 
burden  which  retards  the  perfectionment  of  man.  Admitting 
that  hybridism  will  eventually  result  in  complete  beauty,  it  will 
be  greatly  delayed  in  its  attainment  through  the  accumulation  of 
errors  that  surround  the  characteristics  of  race.  They  form  a 
heavy  ballast,  if  the  phrase  may  be  permitted,  that  impedes  the 
progress  of  its  ascension. 

Consequently, .  the  long  awaited  social  progress  which  is 
gradually  bringing  about  the  "brotherhood  of  man"  is  not  in 
itself  sufficient  for  the  attainment  of  the  ideal  mean. 

There  are  certain  errors  that  must  more  or  less  necessarily  be 
encountered  along  the  pathway  of  humanity;  and  that  act  either 
directly  or  indirectly  upon  posterity,  deforming  and  destroying 
its  resistance  to  life;  and  it  is  these  that  must  be  taken  under 


472  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

consideration,  because  they  delay  the  normal  progress  of  human 
society. 

They  are  conscious  and  well  recognised  errors;  hence  up  to  a 
certain  point  the  active  agency  of  man  may  combat  them  and  suc- 
ceed little  by  little  in  mitigating  them  and  overcoming  their 
disastrous  influence  upon  biological  humanity. 

There  are,  in  general,  two  influences  developing  and  promoting 
that  improvement  which  leads  toward  the  medial  man:  in  pro- 
portion as  the  real  and  practical  intermarriage  of  races  approaches 
its  realisation,  social  errors  diminish;  and  as  the  brotherhood  of 
humanity  is  promoted,  it  leads  to  social  reforms  by  which  the 
"sins  of  the  world"  are  little  by  little  overcome. 

But  these  may  also  be  actively  combated;  and  in  this  direction 
education  has  a  task  of  inestimable  importance  to  civilisation. 
We  ought  to  know  not  only  the  thought  of  our  century,  which  is 
the  luminous  torch  in  the  light  of  which  we  advance  along  the 
path  of  progress;  but  also  the  moral  needs  of  our  time,  and  the  errors 
which  may  be  conquered  through  our  conscious  agency. 

To  know  "the  faults  of  our  century,"  which  are  destined  to  be 
conquered  in  the  coming  century,  and  to  make  preparation  for  the 
victory — such  is  our  moral  mission.  The  ethical  movement  of 
human  society  has  continued  to  advance  from  conquest  to  conquest, 
and  in  looking  backward  the  more  civilised  part  of  mankind  have 
been  horrified  at  the  conditions  that  have  been  outgrown  and  have 
called  them  "barbarous." 

Thus,  for  example,  slavery  was  an  unsurmountable  obstacle 
to  progress,  and  had  to  be  crushed  out  by  civilisation;  the  license 
to  kill  is  also  a  form  of  barbarism  which  to-day  we  are  boasting 
of  having  just  outgrown — or,  at  least,  of  having  reached  the  final 
limit  of  its  duration.  In  early  times  it  was  not  only  permissible 
to  kill,  but  in  many  of  its  forms  murder  was  considered  honourable, 
as,  for  instance,  in  wars  and  in  duels;  it  was  also  one  form  of  justice 
to  kill  for  vengeance,  either  social  or  individual;  the  condemnation 
to  death  of  a  criminal,  the  murder  of  an  adulterous  wife,  the  murder 
of  anyone  who  has  attacked  the  honour  of  the  family,  all  this 
seemed  just  in  the  past.  Lastly,  murder  was  committed  for  pure 
diversion,  as  in  the  auto-da-fe  and  in  the  games  of  the  circus. 

Our  civic  morality  seems  to  have  attained  its  extreme  altitude 
in  having  sanctioned  the  inviolability  of  human  life;  and  the  pres- 
ent-day struggle  against  the  death  penalty,  against  war,  against 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  473 

revolutions,  against  uxoricide,  in  the  case  of  adultery,  and  against 
duelling,  shows  us  the  triumph  of  a  new  and  loftier  conception  of 
humanity  in  the  upward  progress  of  man. 

The  intermixture  of  races  and  the  intermingling  of  national 
interests,  have  aroused  a  sort  of  collective  sentiment  actually  ex- 
isting as  a  normal  form  of  conscience,  namely,  "human  solidarity." 

But  we  are  still  in  a  state  of  complete  barbarity,  still  sunk  in^ 
the  most  profound  unconsciousness,  all  of  us  partners  in  the 
same  great  sin  that  threatens  the  overthrow  of  so-called  civilised 
humanity;  namely,  barbarity  toward  the  species. 

We  are  ignorant,  we  are  almost  strangers,  in  regard  to  our 
responsibility  toward  those  who  are  destined  to  issue  from  us  as  the 
continuation  of  humanity  downward  through  the  centuries;  those 
who  form  the  ultimate  scope  of  our  biological  existence,  inasmuch 
as  each  one  of  us  is  merely  a  connecting  link  be  ween  certain 
portions  of  past  and  future  life.  We  are  all  so  engrossed  with  the 
progress  of  our  environment  and  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  it,  that 
we  have  not  yet  turned  our  attention  inward  toward  ourselves: 
toward  life. 

This  solidarity  which  we  recognise  as  existing  among  men  at 
the  present  moment,  ought  to  be  extended  to  the  men  of  the  future. 
And  since  the  species  is  closely  bound  up  in  the  individual  who  is 
destined  to  reproduce  it,  this  gives  us  at  once  the  basis  for  a  code 
of  individual  moral  conduct,  such  as  would  assure  to  everyone  the 
integrity  of  the  fruit  of  his  own  reproduction.  Sexual  immorality 
which  is  the  stigma  of  the  barbarity  of  our  times,  entails  the  most 
ignominious  form  of  slavery;  the  slavery  of  women  through 
prostitution.  And  emanating  from  this  form  of  barbarity,  the 
slavery  has  expanded  and  spread  to  all  women,  more  or  less 
oppressive,  more  or  less  conscious.  The  wife  is  a  slave,  for  she 
has  married  in  ignorance  and  has  neither  the  knowledge  nor  the 
power  to  avoid  being  made  the  instrument  for  the  birth  of  weakly, 
diseased  or  degenerate  children;  and  still  more  deeply  enslaved 
is  the  mother  who  cannot  restrain  her  own  son  from  degradations 
that  she  knows  are  the  probable  source  of  ruin  of  body  and  soul. 
We  are  all  silently  engaged  in  an  enormous  crime  against  the 
species  and  against  humanity ;  and  like  accomplices  we  have  made  a 
tacit  agreement  not  to  speak  of  it.  Indeed,  the  mysterious 
silence  regarding  sexual  life  is  absolute ;  it  is  as  though  we  feared  to 
compromise  ourselves  in  the  sight  of  that  great  and  powerful 


474  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

judge,  our  own  posterity;  we  hide  under  an  equal  silence  the  good 
and  the  bad  in  relation  to  sexual  life.  This  sort  of  terror  goes  by 
the  name  of  shame  and  modesty.  Such  an  excuse  for  silence 
certainly  sounds  like  pure  irony,  coming  as  it  does  in  the  full  midst 
of  the  orgy,  at  a  time  when  we  all  know  that  every  man  is  laden 
with  his  sins,  and  that  we  are  all  either  accomplices  or  slaves  in 
the  common  fault.  It  would  seem  that  a  race  so  modest  as  to  blush 
at  the  mere  mention  of  sexual  life  ought  to  be  eminently  chaste, 
and  far  removed  from  the  age  of  foundling  asylums  and  houses  of 
ill  fame;  the  age  in  which  infanticide  exists  as  proof  of  absolute 
impunity  in  regard  to  sexual  crimes. 

What  we  call  shame  and  modesty,  is  in  reality  not  shame  or 
modesty  in  regard  to  sexual  acts  and  phenomena,  but  only  in 
regard  to  sins  against  them. 

These  acts  and  phenomena,  being  directly  related  to  creation 
and  the  eternity  of  the  species,  ought  to  be  regarded  by  men  as  in 
the  nature  of  a  lofty  religious  culte,  equally,  for  instance,  with 
that  which  from  the  earliest  prehistoric  times  placed  the  symbol 
of  maternity,  the  mother  and  the  child,  side  by  side  with  the  scythe, 
symbol  of  labour,  in  places  of  worship.  We  cannot  admit  that 
love,  sung  by  the  poets  as  a  divine  sentiment,  is  the  moral  exponent 
of  unworthy  and  shameful  acts.  It  is  the  error,  the  perversion  of 
sexual  life,  the  source  of  degeneration,  of  degradation  and  of  the 
death  of  the  species,  that  makes  us  keep  silent,  conceal  and  blush 
with  shame. 

In  reality,  all  this  ought  to  stir  us,  not  to  embarrassment  and 
shame,  but  to  a  formidable  rebellion,  a  sharp  awakening  of  con- 
science, a  redemption  from  a  state  of  inferior  civilisation. 

It  was  a  barbarous  sovereign  who,  in  the  delusive  hope  that  it 
would  cure  him  of  eczema,  caused  the  throats  of  little  children  to 
be  cut,  so  that  he  might  immerse  himself  in  the  warm  bath  of  their 
blood. 

To-day  anyone  who  would  sacrifice  the  lives  of  children  to 
allay  the  itching  of  his  own  skin,  would  be  in  our  eyes  a  monster 
of  criminality. 

And  yet  almost  equally  criminal  are  the  men  of  our  time, 
lords,  in  a  barbaric  sense,  of  sexual  life;  and  we  silently  acquiesce 
in  customs  which  in  the  future  centuries  will  perhaps  be  remem- 
bered as  a  monstrous  barbarism. 

The  whole  moral  revival  which  awaits  us,  revolves  around  the 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  475 

struggle  against  the  sexual  sins.  The  emancipation  of  woman,  the 
protection  of  maternity  and  of  the  child,  are  its  most  luminous 
exponents;  but  no  less  efficacious  evidences  of  such  progress  are  all 
the  efforts  directed  against  alcoholism  and  the  other  vices  and 
diseases  which  are  reflected  in  their  unhappy  consequences  to 
posterity.  There  is  just  one  side  of  the  question  that  has  hitherto 
been  scarcely  touched  at  all,  and  that  is  the  chastity  of  man  and 
his  responsibility  as  a  father;  but  even  this  has  already  come  to  be 
felt  as  an  imperative  necessity  for  progress.  In  place  of  reducing 
other  human  beings  to  slavery  and  prostituting  them;  instead  of 
betraying  them  and  shattering  their  lives  by  seduction  and  the 
desertion  of  their  offspring,  the  man  of  the  future  will  choose  to 
become  chaste.  He  will  feel  that  otherwise  he  is  dishonoured, 
morally  lost.  Man  will  not  be  willing  to  be  so  weak  as  to  confess 
himself  dragged  down  to  degradation  and  crime  because  unable 
to  conquer  his  own  instincts;  man  who  has  nothing  but  victories 
on  the  credit  side  of  his  history,  and  who  even  succeeded  in  over- 
coming the  greatest  of  all  his  irresistible  instincts,  that  of  self- 
preservation,  in  showing  himself  capable  of  going  into  combat  and 
dying  for  the  ideals  of  his  fatherland. 

Man  is  capable  of  every  great  heroism;  it  was  man  who  found 
a  means  of  conquering  the  formidable  obstacles  of  his  environ- 
ment, establishing  himself  lord  of  the  earth,  and  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  civilisation.  He  will  also  teach  himself  to  be  chaste, 
within  sufficiently  narrow  limits  to  guarantee  the  dignity  of  the 
human  race  and  the  health  of  the  species;  and  in  this  way  he  will 
prescribe  the  ethics  for  the  centuries  of  the  near  future:  sexual 
morality.  There  are  customs  and  virtues,  lofty  ethical  doctrines 
that  stand  in  direct  accord  with  the  conservation  and  the  progress 
of  life.  Bodily  cleanliness,  temperance  in  drink,  the  conquest  of 
personal  instincts,  human  brotherhood  in  the  full  extent  of  the 
thought,  the  feeling,  and  the  practice,  chastity;  all  these  are  just 
so  many  forms  of  the  defense  of  life,  both  of  the  individual  and 
of  the  species.  To-day,  in  .hygiene,  in  pathology  and  in  anthro- 
pology, science  is  showing  us  the  truth  through  positive  proofs, 
through  experiments  and  statistics.  But  these  virtues  which  are 
paths  leading  to  life,  are  simply  being  reconfirmed  by  science; 
just  as  they  are  being  little  by  little  attained  by  civil  progress, 
which  prepares  their  practical  elements;  but  they  were  always 
intuitively  recognised  by  the  human  heart :  nothing  is  older  in  the 


476  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

ethics  of  mankind  than  the  principal  of  brotherhood,  of  victory  over 
the  instincts,  of  chastity.  Only,  these  virtues,  intuitively  perceived, 
could  not  be  universally  practised,  because  universal  practice  de- 
manded time  for  preparation.  But  they  survived  partly  as  af- 
firmations of  absolute  virtue  and  partly  as  prophesies  of  a  future 
age  and  were  considered  as  constituting  the  highest  good.  Just  as 
the  esthetic  sense  led  to  the  recognition  of  normality  at  a  time  when 
this  scientific  concept  was  very  far  from  being  understood  as  it  is 
to-day;  in  the  same  way  the  ethical  and  religious  sense  was  able  to 
feel  intuitively  and  to  separate  from  customs  and  from  sentiments 
belonging  to  an  evanescent  form  of  transitory  civilisation  or  from 
the  temporary  racial  needs,  those  others  that  relate  fundamentally 
to  the  biological  preservation  of  the  individual  and  the  species  and 
the  practical  attainment  of  human  perfection.  And  while  the 
medial  intellectual  man  or  the  artistic  genius  combines  wholly  or 
in  part  the  thoughts  of  his  time,  the  medial  moral  or  religious  man 
sums  up  the  guiding  principles  of  life  which  everyone  feels  pro- 
foundly in  the  depth  of  his  heart ;  and  when  he  speaks  to  other  men 
it  seems  as  though  he  instilled  new  vigour  into  the  very  roots  of 
their  existence,  and  he  is  believed,  when  he  speaks  of  a  happier 
future  toward  which  humanity  is  advancing.  If  the  intellectual 
genius  is  almost  a  reader  of  contemporaneous  thought  as  it  vibrates 
around  him,  the  religious  genius  interprets  more  or  less  completely 
and  perfectly  the  universal  and  eternal  spirit  of  life  in  humanity. 

Accordingly,  the  medial  men  incarnate  the  beautiful,  the  true, 
and  the  good:  in  other  words,  the  theories  of  positivism  arrive  at 
the  self-same  goals  as  idealism,  those  of  poetry,  philosophy  and  art. 

By  following  the  path  of  observation,  we  reach  a  goal  anal- 
ogous to  that  sought  along  the  path  of  intuition. 

The  theory  of  the  medial  man  constructed  fundamentally  upon 
positive  bases  of  measurements  and  facts,  represents  the  limit*  of 
perfection  of  the  human  individual  associated  with  the  limit  of 
perfection  of  human  society,  which  is  formed  in  a  two-fold  way: 
a  close  association  between  all  human  beings,  or  the  formation 
of  a  true  social  organism  (complete  hybridism  in  body;  human 
brotherhood  in  sentiment),  and  the  steadily  progressive  emanci- 
pation, of  every  individual  member  from  anxiety  concerning  the 
defense  of  life,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of  the  development  of 
life.  All  that  was  formerly  included  under  defense  will  assume 

*  Limit,  in  the  mathematical  sense. 


THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY  477 

collective  forms  of  a  high  order  (repressive  justice  repiaced  by 
more  varied  forms  of  prevention:  which  have  for  their  final  goal 
a  widespread  education  and  a  gradual  amelioration  of  labour 
and  social  conditions);  and  in  this  reign  of  peace  there  will  arise 
the  possibility  of  developing  all  the  forces  of  life  (biological  liberty). 
In  such  a  conception,  the  individual  organism  depends  more  and 
more  upon  the  social  organism:  just  as  the  cells  depend  upon  tha 
multicellular  organism;  and  we  may  almost  conceive  of  a  new 
living  entity,  a  super-organism  made  up  of  humanity,  but  in 
which  every  component  part  is  allowed  the  maximum  expansion 
of  its  personal  activity  emancipated  from  all  the  obstacles  that 
have  been  successively  overcome.  This  conception  of  biological 
liberty,  in  other  words,  the  triumph  of  the  free  and  peaceful 
development  of  life,  through  the  long  series  of  more  or  less  bitter 
struggles  and  defenses  of  life,  constitutes,  in  my  opinion,  the  very 
essence  of  the  new  pedagogy.  And  the  evolution  of  modern 
thought  and  of  the  social  environment  can  alone  prepare  for  its 
advent,  perhaps  at  no  distant  day. 


31 


TABLES  SUMMARIZING 
THE  MEAN  PROPORTIONS  OF  THE  BODY  ACCORDING  TO  AGE 

Useful  for  judging  of  normal   development   and  incidentally  for 

diagnosing  forms  of  infantilism: 
Preceded  by  figures  (from  QUET^LET)  giving  the  growth  of  stature 

in  man  and  in  woman  (it  being  well  known  that   the  stature 

is   the   fundamental   measurement   for   forming    the    aforesaid 

judgments'). 


480 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


Age 

Males 

Females 

0 

0.496 

0.483 

1 

0.696 

0.690 

2 

0.797 

0.780 

3 

0.860 

0.850 

4 

0.932 

0.910 

5 

0.990 

0.974 

6 

1.046 

1.032 

7 

1.112 

1.096 

8 

1.170 

1.139 

9 

1.227 

1.200 

10 

1.282 

1.248 

11 

1.327 

1.275 

12 

1.359 

1.327 

13 

1.403 

1.386 

14 

1.487 

1.447 

15 

1.559 

1.475 

16 

1.610 

1.500 

17 

1.670 

1.544 

18 

1.700 

1.562 

19 

1.706 

1.566 

20 

1.711 

1.570 

25 

1.722 

1.577 

30 

1.722 

1.579 

40 

1.713 

1.555 

50 

1.674 

1.536 

60 

1.639 

1.516 

70 

1.623 

1.514 

New-born  child . . 


Length  of  body 0 . 50  m. 

Weight 3  kg. 

Maximum  cranial  circumference 335  mm. 

Circumference  of  thorax 350  mm. 

Index  of  stature 68 

Ponderal  index 28.8  — 


Age  in  years 

1 

2 

3 

Stature  in  metres  

0.696 

0.797 

0.860 

Index  of  stature  

65 

63 

62 

Weight  in  kilograms  

10 

12 

13.21 

Ponderal  index  

30.9 

28.7 

27.5 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

440 

471 

486 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  BIOMETRY 


481 


Age  in  years 

4 

5 

6 

Stature  in  metres       

0  932 

0  990 

1  046 

Index  of  stature  

60 

59 

57 

Weight  in  kilograms  

15 

16  70 

18  04 

Ponderal  index  

26  5 

25  8 

25  1 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

496 

503 

508        <- 

Age  in  years 

7 

8 

9 

Stature  in  metres  

1.112 

1.170 

1.227 

Index  of  stature  

56 

55 

55 

Weight  in  kilograms  

20  16 

22  26 

24.09 

Ponderal  index  

24.4 

24 

23.5 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

513 

519 

523 

Age  in  years 

10 

11 

12 

Stature  in  metres  

1.282 

1.327 

1.359 

Index  of  stature  

54 

53 

53 

Weight  in  kilograms      

26.12 

27.85 

31 

Ponderal  index        

23.1 

22.8 

23.1 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

527 

531 

535 

Age  in  years 

13 

14 

15 

Stature  in  metres     

1.403 

1.487 

1.559 

Index  of  stature  

52 

52 

51 

Weight  in  kilograms  

35.32 

40.50 

46.41 

Ponderal  index  

23.4 

23.1 

23.1 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

539 

543 

547 

Age  in  years 

16 

17 

18 

Stature  in  metres        

1.610 

1.670 

1.700 

Index  of  stature           

51 

52 

52 

Weight  in  kilograms            

53.39 

57.40 

61.26 

Ponderal  index 

23.4 

23.1 

23.2 

Maximum  circumference  of  head  in  milli- 
metres. 

551 

555 

561 

TABLES  OF  CALCULATIONS 


TABLES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 


CALCULATING  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

Antero-posterior  diameters  from  160  to  174  mm.;  bilateral  diameters 
from  120  to  159  mm. 


485 


Bi- 

lateral 
diam- 

Antero-posterior diameters,  in  millimetres 

eters 

in 

i 

milli- 

metres 

160 

161 

162 

163 

164 

165 

166 

167 

168 

169 

170 

171 

172 

173 

174 

120 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

69 

69 

121 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

122 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70. 

123 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

124 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

125 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

126 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

127 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

128 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

129 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

130 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

131 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

132 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

133 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

134 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

135 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

136 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

137 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

138 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

139 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

140 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

141 

89 

88 

87 

87 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

142 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

143 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

S7 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

144 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

145 

91 

90 

90 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

146 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

147 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

148 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

149 

93 

93 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

150 

94 

93 

93 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

151 

94 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

152 

95 

94 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

153 

96 

95 

94 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

154 

96 

96 

95 

94 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

155 

97 

96 

96 

95 

95 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

156 

97 

97 

96 

96 

95 

95 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

157 

98 

98 

97 

96 

96 

95 

95 

94 

93 

93 

'.)•_' 

92 

91 

91 

90 

158 

99 

98 

98 

97 

96 

96 

95 

95 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

159 

99 

99 

98 

98 

97 

96 

96 

95 

95 

94 

94 

93 

92 

92 

91 

486  PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

Antero-posterior  diameters  from  175  to  189  mm.;  bilateral  diameters 
from  125  to  164  mm. 


Bi- 

lateral 

Antero-posterior  diameters,  in  millimetres 

diam- 

eters 

in 

milli- 

metres 

175 

176 

177 

178 

179 

180 

181 

182 

183 

184 

185 

186 

187 

188 

189 

125 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

66 

66 

126 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

127 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

128 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

129 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

130 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

131 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

132 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

133 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

134 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

135 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

136 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

137 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

138 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

139 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

140 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

141 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

142 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

143 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

144 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

145 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

146 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

147 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

148 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

149 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

150 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

151 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

152 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

153 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

154 

88 

87 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

155 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

156 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

83 

157 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

84 

83 

158 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

84 

159 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

85 

84 

160 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

86 

85 

85 

161 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

162 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

163 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

164 

94 

93 

93 

92 

92 

91 

91 

90 

90 

89 

89 

88 

88 

87 

87 

CALCULATING  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  CEPHALIC  INDEX 

Antero-posterior  diameters  from  190  to  204  mm.;  bilateral  diameters 
from  130  to  169  mm. 


487 


Bi- 

lateral 
diam- 

Antero-posterior diameters  in  millimetres 

eters 

in 

milli- 

metres 

190 

191 

192 

193 

194 

195 

196 

197 

198 

199 

200 

201 

202 

203 

204 

130 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

66 

66 

66 

65 

65 

65 

64 

64 

64 

131 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

66 

66 

66 

65 

65 

65 

65 

64 

132 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

66 

66 

66 

65 

65 

65 

133 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

66 

66 

66 

66 

65 

134 

71 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

66 

66 

66 

135 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

67 

66 

136 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

67 

137 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

67 

67 

138 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

68 

139 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

68 

68 

140 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

69 

141 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

69 

69 

142 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

70 

143 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

70 

70 

144 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

71 

145 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

71 

71 

146 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

72 

147 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

72 

72 

148 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

73 

149 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

73 

73 

150 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

74 

151 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

74 

74 

152 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

75 

153 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

76 

76 

75 

75 

164 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

75 

165 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

77 

77 

76 

76 

166 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

76 

167 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

SO 

79 

79 

78 

78 

78 

77 

77 

158 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

77 

169 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

79 

79 

78 

78 

160 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

78 

161 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

80 

80 

79 

79 

162 

85 

85 

84 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

80 

79 

163 

86 

85 

85- 

84 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

81 

81 

80 

80 

164 

86 

86 

85 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

80 

165 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

82 

82 

82 

81 

81 

166 

87 

87 

86 

86 

86 

Sf, 

85 

84 

84 

S3 

83 

83 

82 

82 

81 

167 

88 

87 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

83 

83 

83 

S'J 

82 

168 

88 

88 

87 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

si 

83 

83 

82 

169 

89 

88 

88 

88 

87 

87 

86 

86 

85 

85 

84 

84 

84 

83 

83 

II 

TABLES  FOR  CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


491 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  46  to  60  centimetres;  weights  from  2  to  16  kilograms 


Weights  in 
kilograms 

Statures  in  centimetres 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

2  — 

27  4  26  8  26  2 

25  7  25  2  24  7 

24  2  23  8 

23  3  22  9  22  5 

22  1 

21  7  21  4 

21  0 

2  10 

27  8  27  3  26  7 

26  1  25  6  25  1 

24  6  24  2  23  7  23  3  22  9  22  5  22  1 

21  721  3 

2  20 

28  3  27  7  27  1 

26  6  26  0  25  5 

25  0  24  5  24  1  23  7  23  2  22  8  22  4  22  1 

21  7 

2  30 

28  7  28  1 

27  5 

26  9  26  4 

25  9 

25  4 

24  9  24  4  24  0  23  6  23  2^2  8 

22  4  22  0 

2  40 

29  1 

28  5  27  9 

27  3  26  8 

26  2 

25  7 

25  3 

24  8  24  3 

23  9  23  5 

23  1 

22  7 

22  3 

2  60 

29  5  28  9  28  3 

27  7  27  1 

26  6 

26  1 

25  6 

25  1 

24  7 

24  2  23  8 

23  4 

23  0 

22  6 

2  60 

29  929  328  628  1  27  5 

27  0 

26  4 

25  9  25  5  25  0  24  6  24  1 

23  7 

23  3 

22  9 

2  70 

30  3  29  6  29  0  28  4  27  8 

27  3 

26  8 

26  3  25  8  25  3  24  9  24  4 

24  0 

23  6  23  2 

2  80 

30  6  30  0  29  4  28  8  28  2 

27  6 

27  1  26  6  26  1  25  6  25  2  24  7 

24  3 

23  9  23  5 

2  90 

31  0  30  3 

29  7 

29  1  28  5 

28  0 

27  4  26  9  26  4  25  9  25  5 

25  0  24  6  24  2  23  8 

«  

31  3  30  7  30  0 

29  4  28  8 

28  3 

27  7  27  2  26  7  26  2  25  7 

25  3 

24  9  24  4  24  0 

3  10 

31  731  030  4 

29  8 

29  2 

28  6 

28  0  27  5  27  0  26  5  26  0  25  6  25  1 

24  7 

24  3 

3  20 

32  031  4 

30  7 

30  1 

29  5 

28  9 

28  3  27  8 

27  3  26  8  26  3  25  9 

25  4 

25  0  24  6 

3  30 

32  431  7 

31  0 

30  4 

29  8 

29  2 

28  6  28  1 

27  6  27  1 

26  6  26  1 

25  7 

25  2  24  8 

3  40 

32  732  031  3 

30  7 

30  1 

29  5 

28  9  28  4 

27  9 

27  3 

26  9 

26  4 

25  9 

25  5 

25  1 

3  50 

33  0 

32  3  31  6 

31  0 

30  4 

29  8 

29  2 

28  6 

28  1 

27  6 

27  1 

26  6 

26  2 

25  7 

25  3 

3  60 

33  332  631  9 

31  3 

30  7 

30  1 

29  5  28  9 

28  4 

27  9 

27  4 

26  9 

26  4  26  0  25  5 

3  70 

33  6 

32  9  32  2 

31  6 

30  9 

30  3 

29  7 

29  2 

28  6 

28  1 

27  6  27  1 

26  7 

26  2  25  8 

3  80 

33  9  33  2 

32  5 

31  8 

31  2 

30  6 

30  0 

29  4 

28  9 

28  4 

27  9127  4 

26  9 

26  4  26  0 

3  90 

34  2  33  5  32  8 

32  1 

31  5 

30  9 

30  3 

29  7 

29  1 

28  6 

28  1 

27  6 

27  1 

26  7 

26  2 

4  — 

34  5 

33  8  33  1 

32  4 

31  7 

31  1 

30  5 

29  9  29  4 

28  9 

28  3 

27  8 

27  4 

26  9 

26  4 

4  10 

34  8  34  1  33  4 

32  7 

32  0 

31  4 

30  8 

30  2  29  6  29  1 

28  6  28  1 

27  6  27  1 

26  7 

4  20 

35  1  34  3  33  6 

32  9 

32  3 

31  6 

31  0 

30  4 

29  9  29  3 

28  8  28  3  27  8  27  3 

26  9 

30 

35  3  34  6  33  9 

33  2 

32  5 

31  9 

31  3 

30  7 

30  1 

29  6  29  0  28  5  28  0;27  6 

27  1 

40 

35  6 

34  9 

34  1 

33  4 

32  8 

32  1 

31  5 

30  9 

30  4 

29  8 

29  3  28  8 

28  3  27  8 

27  3 

50 

35  9 

35  1 

34  4 

33  7  33  0 

32  4 

31  7 

31  2 

30  6 

30  0  29  5  29  0 

28  5  28  0 

27  5 

60 

36  2 

35  4  34  6 

33  9  33  3 

32  6 

32  0 

31  4 

30  8  30  2  29  7 

29  2 

28  7 

28  2  27  7 

70 

36  4 

35  6  34  9 

34  2  33  5 

32  8 

32  2 

31  6 

31  0  30  5  29  9  29  4  28  9  28  4  27  9 

80 

36  7 

35  9  35  1 

34  4  33  7 

33  1 

32  4 

31  8 

31  2 

30  7  30  1 

29  629  1 

28  6  28  1 

90 

36  9 

36  1 

35  4 

34  7  34  0 

33  3 

32  7 

32  0 

31  4 

30  9 

30  3 

29  8  29  3^8  8  28  3 

5  — 

37  2 

36  4 

35  6  34  9  34  2 

33  5 

32  9  32  3 

31  731  1 

30  5 

30  0  29  5  29  0  28  5 

6  25 

37  8 

37  036  2;35  534  8 

34  1 

33  4  32  8 

32  2  31  6 

;31  0  30  5  30  0  29  5 

29  0 

5  50 

38  4 

37  6  36  8  36  0  35  3  34  6 

33  9  33  3  32  7  32  1 

31  531  030  429  929  4 

6  76 

39  0 

38  1 

37  3  36  6  35  8  35  1  34  5  33  8  33  2  32  6  32  0  31  4 

30  9  30  4 

29  9 

6  — 

39  5 

38  7  37  9  37  1  36  3  35  6  34  9;34  3 

33  633  0  32  431  931  3 

30  8  30  3 

6  25 

40  0 

39  2  38  4 

37  6  36  8 

36  1  35  4J34  8 

34  133  5  32  9  32  3  31  831  2 

30  7 

6  60 

40  6 

39  7  38  9 

38  1 

37  3 

36  6  35  9  35  2 

34  633  9  33  332  732  231  631  1 

6  76 

41  1 

40  2 

39  4 

38  6 

37  8 

37  1 

36  3  35  7 

35  0  34  4  33  7,33  2  32  6 

32  031  5 

7  — 

41  6 

40  7 

39  9 

39  038  3 

37  5  36  8  36  1 

35  4 

34  8  34  2  33  6  33  0 

32  4 

31  9 

7  50 

42  5 

41  6  40  8  39  9  39  1 

38  4  37  6  36  9  36  2  35  6  ^4  9  34  3 

33  7 

33  2 

32  6 

8  — 

43  5 

42  6  41  7 

40  8  40  0  39  2  38  5  37  7  37  0  36  4  35  7  35  1 

34  5  33  9  33  3 

8  50 

44  4 

43  4 

42  5 

41  740  8  40  039  238  5  37  8  37  1 

36  4  35  8  35  2  34  6,34  0 

9  — 

45  2 

44  3 

43  3 

42  441  6  40  8 

40  0  39  2 

38  5  37  8  37  1 

36  5  35  9  35  3  34  7 

LO  — 

46  8 

45  8  44  9  44  0  43  1  42  2  41  4  40  6  39  9  39  2  38  5  37  8  37  1 

36  5  35  9 

LI  — 

48  3 

47  3 

46  3  45  4  44  5 

43  642  842  041  240  4 

39  7  39  0  38  3 

37  7 

37  1 

L2  — 

49  8 

48  7 

47  7 

46  7  45  8 

44  9  44  0  43  2 

42  441  6 

40  940  239  5  38  8  38  1 

L3  — 

51  1  50  0  49  0  48  0  47  0 

46  1  45  2  44  4 

43  5  42  7 

42  041  2 

40  5  39  8  39  2 

L4  — 

52  4i51  3 

50  2  49  2!48  2 

47  3  46  3  45  5  44  6  43  8 

43  0!42  3!41  6  40  8  40  2 

L6  — 

53  6  52  5 

51  4  50  3:49  3  48  4  47  4  46  5  45  7  44  8 

44  043  3!42  541  841  1 

L6  — 

54  8  53  6  52  5  51  4  50  4  49  4  48  5  47  5  46  7  45  8 

45  0  44  2  43  4  42  7 

42  0 

492 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  61  to  75  centimetres;  weights  from  2  to  16  kilograms. 


Weights  in 
kilograms 

Statures  in  centimetres 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

2  — 

20  7 

20  3 

20  0 

19  7 

19  4  19  1 

18  8 

18  5 

18  318  0  17  7 

17  5 

17  3  17  016  8 

2  10 

21  0  20  7  20  3  20  0  19  7  19  4  19  1  18  8  18  6  18  3  18  0  17  8 

17  517  317  1 

2  20 

21  3 

21  020  720  3 

20  0  19  7 

19  419  1  18  9  18  6  18  3 

18  017  8  17  6  17  3 

2  30 

21  6 

21  3 

21  020  620  3'20  0 

19  719  419  1  18  9 

18  6 

18  3 

18  1 

17  817  6 

2  40 

22  0 

21  621  320  920  6,20  3 

20  0  19  7 

19  419  1 

18  9 

18  6 

18  3 

18  1 

17  9 

2  50 

22  2 

21  921  521  2 

20  9  20  6 

20  3  20  0 

19  7  19  4 

19  1 

18  8 

18  6 

18  3 

18  1 

2  60 

22  5 

22  221  821  521  2  20  8 

20  5  20  2  19  9  19  6  19  4 

19  1 

18  818  618  3 

2  70 

22  8 

22  522  i;21  721  4  21  1 

20  820  520  219  9  19  6 

19  3 

19  1  18  818  6 

2  80 

23  1 

22  722  4 

22  021  7  21  3 

21  020  720  420  1  19  8 

19  6 

19  3  19  0 

18  8 

2  90 

23  4 

23  022  6 

22  321  9,21  6 

21  3 

21  0  20  7  20  4 

20  1 

19  8 

19  5 

19  3 

19  0 

g  

23  6 

23  3 

22  9 

22  5  22  2  21  8 

21  5 

21  2 

20  9  20  6  20  3 

20  0 

19  8 

19  519  2 

3  10 

23  9 

23  5 

23  1 

22  8  22  4  22  1 

21  821  421  120  8  20  5 

20  2  20  0 

19  7 

19  4 

3  20 

24  2 

23  8  23  4 

23  0  22  7  22  3 

22  0  21  7  21  4  21  1  20  8  20  5  20  2 

19  9 

19  7 

3  30 

24  4 

24  0  23  6 

23  3 

22  9  22  6 

22  221  921  621  3  21  0  20  7 

20  4 

20  1 

19  9 

3  40 

24  7 

24  3  23  9 

23  5  23  1 

22  8 

22  4 

22  1 

21  821  5 

21  2 

20  9 

20  6 

20  3 

20  1 

3  50 

24  9 

24  5  24  1 

23  7  23  4  23  0 

22  7 

22  3 

22  0  21  7 

21  421  1 

20  8 

20  5 

20  2 

3  60 

25  1 

24  7  24  3 

24  0  23  6  23  2 

22  9 

22  5 

22  2  21  9 

21  6  21  3 

21  0 

20  7 

20  4 

3  70 

25  4 

25  0  24  6 

24  2  23  8  23  4 

23  1 

22  7 

22  422  1  |21  821  5 

21  2 

20  9 

20  6 

3  80 

25  6 

25  2 

24  8 

24  4  24  0  23  6 

23  3 

22  9 

22  6  22  3 

22  021  7 

21  4 

21  1 

20  8 

3  90 

25  8 

25  4  25  0 

24  6  24  2 

23  8 

23  5 

23  1 

22  8  22  5 

22  2 

21  9 

21  6 

21  3 

21  0 

4  — 

26  0 

25  6  25  2 

24  8  24  4 

24  0 

23  7  23  3 

23  0  22  7 

22  4 

22  0 

21  7 

21  4 

21  2 

4  10 

26  2 

25  8  25  4 

25  024  6 

24  3 

23  9 

23  5 

23  2  22  9 

22  5  22  2  21  9 

21  6 

21  3 

4  20 

26  4 

26  0  25  6 

25  2  24  8 

24  4 

24  1 

23  7 

23  4!23  0 

22  7  22  4  22  1 

21  8 

21  5 

4  30 

26  7 

26  2  25  8 

25  4 

25  0 

24  6 

24  3  23  9 

23  6  23  2 

22  9  22  6  22  3 

22  0 

21  7 

4  40 

26  9 

26  4  26  0 

25  6 

25  2 

24  8 

24  5  24  1 

23  8  23  4 

23  1 

22  8  22  5 

22  1 

21  9 

4  50 

27  1 

26  6  26  2 

25  8 

25  4 

25  0  24  6  24  3  23  9 

23  6 

23  3 

22  9  22  6  22  3 

22  0 

4  60 

27  3 

26  8  26  4 

26  0 

25  6 

25  2  24  8  24  5  24  1 

23  8 

23  4 

23  1 

22  8 

22  5 

22  2 

4  70 

27  5 

27  0  26  6 

26  2 

25  8 

25  4  25  0 

24  6  24  3 

23  9 

23  6  23  3 

22  9 

22  6 

22  3 

4  80 

27  7 

27  2  26  8 

26  4 

26  0 

25  6  25  2 

24  8  24  4  24  1 

23  823  4 

23  1 

22  8 

22  5 

4  90 

27  8  27  4:27  0 

26  5 

26  1 

25  7  25  3 

25  024  624  3 

23  9  23  6  23  3 

22  9 

22  6 

5  — 

28  0  27  7  27  1  26  7 

26  3 

25  9  25  5 

25  1  24  8 

24  4 

24  1 

23  7  23  4  23  1 

22  8 

6  25 

28  5  28  0  27  6  27  2 

26  7 

26  3  25  9 

25  6  25  2 

24  8 

24  5  24  1 

23  8  23  5 

23  2 

5  50 

28  9  28  5 

28  0  27  6 

27  2 

26  7 

26  3 

26  0  25  6 

25  2 

24  9  24  5 

24  2  23  9 

23  5 

5  76 

29  4  28  9 

28  4  28  0 

27  6  27  2 

26  7 

26  3  26  0 

25  6 

25  2  24  9  24  5  24  2 

23  9 

6  — 

29  8  29  3  28  8  28  4 

28  0 

27  5 

27  1 

26  7 

26  3 

26  0 

25  6 

25  2  24  9  24  6 

24  2 

6  25 

30  2  29  7  29  2  28  8i28  3 

27  9 

27  5 

27  1 

26  7 

26  3 

25  9  25  6  25  2  24  9 

24  6 

6  50 

30  6  30  1 

29  629  5l28  7 

28  3 

27  9 

27  4  27  0 

26  7 

26  3  25  9  25  6  25  2  24  9 

6  75 

31  030  530  029  5 

29  1 

28  6 

28  2 

27  8 

27  4 

27  0 

26  6  26  3 

25  9  25  5  25  2 

7  — 

31  430  930  4 

29  9 

29  4 

29  0 

28  6 

28  1 

27  7 

27  3 

26  9  26  6 

26  2 

25  9 

25  5 

7  50 

32  131  631  130  6 

30  1|29  7 

29  2 

28  8  28  4  28  0 

27  6  27  2 

26  8 

26  4 

26  1 

8  — 

32  832  331  7 

31  2 

30  8  30  3 

29  9 

29  4  29  0  28  6 

28  2 

27  8  27  4 

27  0 

26  7 

8  50 

33  5  32  9 

32  4 

31  9 

31  4 

30  9 

30  5 

30  0  29  6 

29  2 

28  7 

28  3 

28  0 

27  6 

27  2 

9  — 

34  1 

33  5 

33  032  5 

32  0 

31  5 

31  0 

30  6 

30  1 

297 

29  3 

28  9 

28  5 

28  1 

27  7 

10  — 

35  334  734  2  33  7  33  1 

32  6 

32  1 

31  7 

31  2 

30  8  30  3 

29  9  29  5 

29  1 

28  7 

11  — 

36  535  935  3  34  7  34  2 

33  7 

33  2 

32  7 

32  2 

31  8  31  330  930  5 

30  1 

29  7 

12  — 

37  5  36  9  36  3  35  7  35  2 

34  7 

34  2 

33  7  33  2 

32  7 

32  2 

31  831  4 

30  9  30  5 

13  — 

38  5 

37  9  37  3  36  7  36  2 

35  6 

35  1 

34  6  34  1 

33  6 

33  1 

32  7|32  231  831  3 

14  — 

39  5 

38  9  38  3  37  7  37  1 

36  5 

36  0 

35  4 

34  9 

34  4 

33  9 

33  5  33  0  32  6  32  1 

15  — 

40  4 

39  8  39  1  38  5  37  9 

37  4 

36  8 

36  3 

35  7  35  2 

34  7  34  2  33  8  33  3  32  9 

16  — 

41  3 

40  6 

40  0 

39  4  38  8 

38  2 

37  6 

37  1 

36  5,36  0 

35  5 

35  034  5 

34  1  33  6 

CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


493 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  76  to  90  centimetres;  weights  from  4  to  37  kilograms 


Statures  in  centimetres 


76 


77 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


83 


84 


85 


86 


87     88 


89     90 


20  920 

21  721 

22  522 

23  222 

23  923 

24  6  24 

25  2  24 
25  725 


6  20  3  20 
421  2  20 
221  921 
922  622 
623  3  23 
2  23  9  23 
824  524 
425  1)24 


1  19  8 
920  6 
621  4 
3]22  1 
022  6 
6  23  3 
2:23  9 
824  5 


26  3  26  0  25 

26  9  26  5  26 

27  4  27  OJ26 

27  9  27  5  27 

28  3  28  0  27 

28  8  28  4  28 

29  3  28  9  28 

29  7  29  3'28 

30  1 29  7  29 
30  5  30  1  29 


19  619 

20  4  20 

21  120 

21  821 

22  422 

23  Oi22 
23  6!23 
24 


4  19  1  18 
1  19  9  19 
9  20  6|20 
521  321 
2|21  921 

8  22  5|22 
3  23  0122 

9  23  6  23 


9|18  7j  18 
7  19  4  19 
4  20  1  19 
0  20  8  20 
621  4|21 
222  0:21 
8|22  5  22 
3  23  O;  22 


5  18  2  18 
2  19  018 
919  7  19 
5120  3  20 
120  920 
721  421 
222  021 
822  522 


0  17  8  17  6 
8|l8  6  18  3 
419  2  19  0 

1  19  819  6 

6  20  4(20  2 
2|21  020  7 

7  21  5i21  3 
222  0,21  7 


24  724  424  123  823  5  23  323  022  722  5  22  2 

225  825  5  25  224  9  24  6  24  324  0  23  7i23  523  2  22  9  22  7 
726  326  0,  25  7i25  425  1  24  8:24  5  24  223  9;23  623  423  1 

226  826  5  26  1J25  8'25  5i25  224  9  124  624  3|24  H23  823  5 
627  326  9  '26  6,26  326  025  625  3  25  024  8:24  5,24  223  9 


127  727  4  27  026  7|26 
528  227  8H27  527  126 
928  628  2i|27  927  5;27 
3^29  028  6 i|28  3  27  9|27 
829  429  0  28  728  3;28 


4'26  1  25  8  25  5  25  2'24  9  24  6  24  3 
826  526  2  25  925  625  325  024  7 
226  926  6.26  225  9'25  625  425  1 
627  226  9  26  626  3!26  OJ25  7J25  4 
0  27  6  27  3  27  0  26  7i26  4:26  1  25  8 


30  930  530  1!29  829  4  29  028  728  328  027  7  27  327  0!26  7j26  426  1 

31  330  930  530  129  8  29  429  028  728  3  28  0  27  727  427  126  8,26  5 

31  731  330  930  530  1  29  829  429  028  728  3  28  0127  7J27  4!27  L26  8 

32  131  7J31  330  930  5  30  129  729  429  028  7  28  3!28  027  7|27  4\27  1 
32  4  32  0  31  6  31  2  30  8  30  4  30  1  29  7  29  4  29  0  28  7,28  3  28  0  27  7i27  4 


32  832  432  031  631  2 

33  232  7,32  331  931  5 
33  533  1132  632  231  8 

33  8  33  4i33  0^32  5  32  0 

34  2  33  7  33  3  32  9  32  4 


30  8  30  4  30  0  29  7  29  3  29  0  28  7  28  3  28  0  27  7 

31  130  730  430  029  6  29  329  028  628  328  0 
31  4|31  030  730  330  0  29  6;29  328  928  6S28  3 

31  731  431  030  630  2  29  9i29  6,29  228  9'28  6 

32  031  7|31  3^30  9!30  5  30  2  29  8  29  529  228  8 


34  534  033  633  232  8  32  432  031  631  230  8  30  5  30  1  29  8  29  4  29  1 

34  8  34  4  33  9  33  5  33  1  32  7  32  3  31  9  31  5  31  1  30  8  30  4  30  1  29  7  29  4 

35  1!34  634  233  833  3J32  932  532  131  831  4,31  030  7  30  3  30  0  29  6 
35  4  35  0  34  5  34  1  33  &33  2  32  8  32  4  32  0  31  7  131  3  30  9  30  6  30  2  29  9 
35  7i35  234  834  433  9  33  533  132  7,32  331  9  31  6  31  2  30  8  30  5  30  2 


36  335 

36  9  36 

37  436 

37  9  37 

38  538 


8  35  4  34 
435  935 

9  36  5  36 
5i37  0  36 

037  5  37 

538  037 

038  538 
4!38  9  38 
9  39  4  38 
4  39  8  39 


41  340 

41  8  41 

42  2  41 

42  6|42 

43  0  42 
43  442 
43  8;43 


934  5 
535  0 

035  5 
5:36  0! 

036  5| 

537  0, 

037  5 
438  O! 
9'38  4 
338  8 


34  133  633  232  832  5  32  1 


31 


32 


4  31  osO  7 
1 
3  31  931  6 


35  1  34  734  333  9|33  5  33 

35  635  234  7i34  333  9  33  533  232  832  432  0 

36  135  7:35  234  834  4^34  033  6,33  232  9,32  5 

36  636  l'35  735  834  8  34  4;34  033  733  332  9 

37  036  636  1  35  7  35  3  34  934  534  133  7|33  3 
37  537  036  636  235  7  35  334  934  534  133  7 


840  339  839  3 
2AO  7  40  2  39  7 
741  l'40  640  1 
141  5!41  040  5 
541  941  440  9 
942  341  841  3 
342  742  241  6 


37  937  5137  036  636  1  35  7 

38  437  937  437  036  6  36  1 


38  838 

39  238 

39  639 

40  039 
40  4139 

40  8:40 

41  140 


3  37  8  37 
738  337 
1|38  7138 
5  39  0  38 
9  39  4  38 
3  39  8  39 
6,40  1,39 


35  3  34  9  34  5  34  1 
35  735  334  934  5 


437  0  36  536 

8  37  4  36  9  36 
237  7  37  3136 
638  1  37  7'37 

9  38  5  38  0  37 
338  8  38  438 
7,39  2  38  7  38 


1  35  7  35  3  34  9 
536  135  735  3 
936  536  035  6 
236  836  4136  0 
6  37  2  36  8  36  3 
0  37  5  37  1  36  7 
3  37  9  37  4  37  0 


32 


494 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 
Statures  from  91  to  105  centimetres;  weights  from  4  to  37  kilograms 


Weights  in 
kilograms 

Statures  in  centimetres 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

10, 

102 

103 

104 

105 

4  — 

17  4 

17  2 

17  016  916  7  16  5 

16  4 

16  2 

16  015  9l!15  7 

15  6 

15  4 

15  3 

15  1 

4  50 

18  1 

17  9 

17  817  617  4  17  2 

17  016  816  7  16  5  16  3 

16  2 

16  0 

15  9 

15  7 

6  — 

18  8  18  6 

18  418  2  18  0  17  8 

17  6 

17  4 

17  3  17  1  16  9 

16  8 

16  6 

16  5 

16  3 

5  50 

19  4 

19  2 

19  018  818  6  18  3 

18  2 

18  0 

17  8 

17  6  17  5 

17  3 

17  1 

17  0 

16  8 

6  — 

20  0  19  7 

19  5 

19  319  1  18  9 

18  7 

18  5 

18  4 

18  2  18  0 

17  8 

17  6 

17  5 

17  3 

6  50 

20  5  20  3  20  1 

19  9 

19  6  19  4 

19  2 

19  0 

18  8 

18  7 

18  5 

18  3 

18  1 

17  9 

17  8 

7  — 

21  0  20  8  20  6 

20  4 

20  1  19  9 

19  7 

19  5 

19  3 

19  1 

18  9 

18  8 

18  6 

18  4 

18  2 

7  60 

21  5 

21  321  1 

20  8 

20  6 

20  4 

20  2  20  0 

19  8 

19  6 

19  4 

19  2 

19  0 

18  8 

18  6 

8  — 

22  0 

21  721  521  3 

21  1 

20  8 

20  6  20  4  20  2 

20  0  19  8  19  6  19  4 

19  2 

19  0 

8  50 

22  4 

22  222  021  7 

21  5  21  3 

21  020  820  6 

20  4  20  2  20  0  19  8 

19  6 

19  4 

9  — 

22  9 

22  6  22  4  22  1 

21  9  21  7 

21  421  221  0 

20  8  20  6  20  4  20  2 

20  0 

19  8 

9  50 

23  3 

23  0  22  8  22  5 

22  3  22  1 

21  821  621  4 

21  2  21  020  820  620  420  2 

10  — 

23  7 

23  4  23  2  22  9 

22  7  22  4 

22  2  22  0  21  8 

21  5  21  321  120  920  720  5 

10  50 

24  1 

23  8  23  5 

23  3 

23  1  22  8 

22  622  3 

22  1 

21  9  21  7 

21  521  3 

21  1 

20  9 

11  — 

24  424  223  9  23  7 

23  4  23  2 

22  9  22  7 

22  5 

22  2  22  021  821  6 

21  421  2 

11  60 

24  824  524  3  24  0 

23  8  23  5 

23  3  23  0  22  8  22  6  22  3 

22  1  21  9 

21  721  5 

12  — 

25  224  924  6  24  4 

24  1  23  8 

23  6  23  4l23  1  22  9  22  7 

22  4  22  2 

22  021  8 

12  60 

25  5  25  2 

25  0  24  7 

24  4  24  2 

23  923  7  23  4  23  2 

23  022  822  522  322  1 

13  — 

25  8  25  6 

25  3  25  0 

24  7 

24  5 

24  2  24  0  23  7 

23  5 

23  3  23  0  22  8 

22  6  22  4 

13  50 

26  2 

25  925  625  3 

25  1 

24  8  24  5  24  3  24  1 

23  8  23  6  23  3  23  1 

22  9 

22  7 

14  — 

26  5 

26  2  25  9  25  6 

25  4 

25  1 

24  824  624  3 

24  1 

23  9  23  6  23  4 

23  2  23  0 

14  50 

26  8 

26  526  225  9 

25  7 

25  4  25  1 

24  9  24  6 

24  4 

24  1  23  9  23  7  23  4  23  3 

15  — 

27  1 

26  8 

26  5  26  2 

26  0 

25  7 

25  4  25  2  24  9 

24  7 

24  4  24  2 

23  9  23  7  23  5 

15  50 

27  4 

27  1 

26  8 

26  5 

26  2 

26  0 

25  7  25  4  25  2 

24  9 

24  7  24  4 

24  2 

24  023  7 

16  — 

27  7 

27  4 

27  1  26  8 

26  5 

26  2  26  0  25  7 

25  5 

25  2 

25  0  24  7 

24  5 

24  2  24  0 

16  50 

28  0 

27  7  27  4 

27  1 

26  8 

26  5  26  2  26  0  25  7 

25  5 

25  2  25  0 

24  7 

24  5  24  2 

17  — 

28  3 

27  9  27  6 

27  4 

27  1 

26  8  26  5  26  2  26  0 

25  7 

25  5  25  2 

25  0 

24  7 

24  5 

17  60 

28  5 

28  2  27  9 

27  6 

27  3 

27  026  826  526  2 

26  0 

25  7  25  5  25  2  25  0  24  7 

18  — 

28  8 

28  528  2 

27  9 

27  6 

27  3  27  0  26  7  26  5 

26  2 

26  0  25  7  25  425  2  25  0 

18  50 

29  1 

28  7  28  4 

28  1 

27  8 

27  6  27  3 

27  0  26  7 

26  4 

26  2  25  9  25  7  25  4  25  2 

19  — 

29  3 

29  0  28  7  28  4 

28  0 

27  8  27  5 

27  2  26  9 

26  7  26  4  26  2  25  9  25  7  25  4 

19  60 

29  6  29  3  28  9  28  6  28  3  28  0  27  8  27  5  27  2  26  9  26  7  26  4  26  1  25  9  25  6 

20  — 

29  8  29  5  29  2 

28  928  6;,28  3  28  0 

27  7  27  4  27  1  26  9  26  6  26  3  26  1 

25  8 

21  — 

30  3  30  0  29  7 

29  4 

29  0  |28  7  28  4 

28  2  27  9  27  6 

27  3 

27  0  26  8  26  5  26  3 

22  — 

30  830  530  1 

29  8 

29  5 

29  2  28  9  28  6  28  3  28  0 

27  7 

27  5  27  2  26  9  26  7 

23  — 

31  2  30  9  30  6 

30  3 

29  9 

29  6  29  3  29  0  28  7  28  4  28  2  27  9 

27  6  27  3 

27  1 

24  — 

31  731  331  0 

30  7 

30  4  30  0  29  7 

29  4  29  1  28  8  28  6|28  3 

28  0  27  7 

27  5 

25  — 

32  1 

31  8  31  4 

31  1 

30  8  30  5  30  1 

29  8  29  5  29  2  28  9  28  7 

28  4  28  1 

27  8 

26  — 

32  5  32  2  31  8 

31  5 

31  2 

30  9  30  5  30  2  29  9 

29  6  ,29  3  29  0 

28  8  28  5 

28  2 

27  — 

33  032  632  3 

31  9 

31  6  ;31  2  30  9  30  6  30  3 

30  0  29  729  429  128  828  6 

28  — 

33  4  33  0  32  7 

32  3 

32  0  31  631  331  030  7 

30  4  30  1  29  8 

29  5  29  2  28  9 

29  — 

33  8  33  4  33  0 

32  7 

32  3  32  031  731  3  31  030  7  30  4  30  1 

29  8  29  5  29  3 

30  — 

34  1 

33  8 

33  4 

33  1 

32  7 

32  4 

32  0 

31  7 

31  4 

31  1 

30  8  30  5 

30  2  29  9  29  6 

31  — 

34  5  34  1 

33  8 

33  4 

33  1 

32  7 

32  4 

32  1 

31  731  4 

31  1  30  8 

30  5  30  2  29  9 

32  — 

34  9  34  5  34  1 

33  8  33  4  33  1 

32  732  432  131  7 

31  431  1 

30  8  30  5  30  2 

33  — 

35  3  34  9  34  5 

34  1 

33  8  33  4  33  1 

32  7 

32  4 

32  1 

31  831  5 

31  1  30  8  30  6 

34  — 

35  6  35  2  34  8 

34  5 

34  1 

33  7 

33  4 

33  1 

32  7 

32  4 

32  1  31  8 

31  531  230  9 

36  — 

35  9  35  6  35  2  34  8 

34  4 

34  1 

33  7  33  4 

33  0 

32  7  32  432  131  831  531  2 

36  — 

36  3  35  9  35  5  35  1  34  8  34  4  34  0  33  7 

33  4 

33  0  32  732  432  131  731  4 

37  — 

36  6 

36  2 

35  8  35  4 

35  1  34  7 

34  4 

34  0 

33  7 

33  3 

33  0 

32  7 

32  3 

32  0 

31  7 

CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


495 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  106  to  120  centimetres;  weights  from  11  to  60  kilograms 


Weights  in 
kilograms 

Statures  in  centimetres 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

118 

119 

120 

11 

21  0 

20  8 

20  6  20  4 

20  2 

20  0 

19  9 

19  7 

19  5 

19  3  19  2 

19  0 

18  8 

18  7 

18  5 

12 

21  621  4 

21  221  020  8 

20  6  20  4  20  3  20  1 

19  9  19  7  19  6 

19  4 

19  2 

19  1 

13 

22  222  021  821  621  4 

21  221  0  20  8  20  6  20  4  20  3  20  1 

19  9 

19  8 

19  6 

14 

22  7  22  5  22  3  22  1 

21  9 

21  721  5 

21  321  121  0 

20  8  20  6  20  4  20  3  20  1 

15 

23  3 

23  0 

22  8  22  6 

22  4 

22  2  22  0 

21  8|21  6 

21  4  21  3  21  1  20  9  20  7(20  6 

16 

23  8 

23  6  23  3  23  1 

22  9 

22  7  22  5 

22  3  22  1 

21  9  21  721  521  421  221  0 

17 

24  3  24  0 

23  8  23  6  23  4 

23  2:23  022  822  622  4  22  2  22  021  8  21  6  21  4 

18 

24  7  24  5 

24  3 

24  0  23  8 

23  6  23  4 

23  2  23  0  22  8  22  6  22  4  22  2  22  021  8 

19 

25  2  24  9  24  7 

24  5  24  3 

!24  023  823  623  423  2  23  022  822  622  422  2 

20 

25  625  4 

25  1 

24  9  24  7 

24  524  224  023  823  6,J23  423  2 

23  0  22  8 

22  6 

21 

26  0  25  8  25  5 

25  3(25  1 

24  9  24  6 

24  424  224  0  23  8  23  6  23  4  23  2 

23  0 

22 

26  4  26  2  25  9  25  7 

25  5 

25  2  25  0 

24  8  24  6  24  4  24  2  23  9  23  7  23  5  23  3 

23 

26  8  26  6  26  3 

26  1 

25  9 

25  6 

25  4 

25  2 

24  9  24  7  24  5  24  3  24  1 

23  9  23  7 

24 

27  2  27  0  26  7 

26  5  26  2 

26  0 

25  7 

25  5  25  3  25  1  24  9  24  6  24  4  24  2  24  0 

25 

27  6 

27  3  27  1 

26  8 

26  6 

,26  3 

26  1 

25  925  625  4,25  225  024  824  6 

24  4 

26 

27  9 

27  5 

27  4 

27  2 

26  9 

26  7 

26  4 

26  226  025  8  25  5  25  3  25  1  24  9 

24  7 

27 

28  3  28  0  27  8  27  5  27  3 

27  0 

26  8 

26  5  26  3  26  1  25  9  25  6  25  4  25  2  25  0 

28 

28  7  28  4  28  1 

27  9  27  6 

27  4 

27  1 

26  9  26  6  26  4  26  2  26  0  25  7  25  5  25  3 

29 

29  028  7 

28  4  28  2 

27  9 

27  7 

27  4  27  2  26  9  26  7  26  5  26  3  26  0  25  8  25  6 

30 

29  3  29  0 

28  8 

28  5 

28  2 

|28  0 

27  7 

27  5  27  3 

27  0 

26  8  26  6  26  3  26  1 

25  9 

31 

29  6  29  4 

29  1 

28  8 

28  6 

28  3 

28  0  27  8  27  6 

27  3 

27  1 

26  8  26  6  26  4 

26  2 

32 

30  0  29  7  29  4  29  1 

28  9 

28  6  28  3  28  1 

27  9 

27  6 

27  4  27  1 

26  9  26  7  26  5 

33 

30  3  30  0  29  7  29  4'29  2 

i28  9  28  6  28  4  28  1 

27  9 

27  7  27  4  27  2  27  0  26  7 

34 

30  6  30  3  30  0  29  7 

29  5 

29  2  28  9  28  7 

28  4 

28  2 

27  9  27  7  27  5  27  2  27  0 

35 

30  9 

30  6 

30  3 

30  0  29  7 

29  5  29  2  28  9(28  7 

28  4 

28  2  28  0  27  7 

27  5  27  3 

36 

31  2 

30  9  30  6 

30  3 

30  0 

29  7  29  5  29  2  29  0 

28  7 

28  5  28  2  28  0 

27  7  27  5 

37 

31  431  130  930  630  3 

30  0  29  7  29  5  29  2  29  0 

28  728  528  2  28  0  27  8 

38 

31  7 

31  431  1 

30  8  30  6 

30  330  029  729  529  2 

29  0 

28  7 

28  5 

28  3  28  0 

39 

32  0 

31  7 

31  431  1 

30  8 

30  5  30  3 

30  0  29  7  29  5 

29  2 

29  0  28  7:28  5  28  3 

40 

OO  Q 

•>_  0 

32  031  7 

31  4 

31  1 

30  8 

30  5 

30  330  029  7 

29  5 

29  2 

29  0 

28  7  28  5 

41 

32  5 

32  2 

31  9 

31  7 

31  3 

311 

30  8 

30  5  30  2  30  0 

29  7 

29  5 

29  2 

29  028  7 

42 

32  832  532  231  9 

31  6 

31  3 

31  030  830  530  2 

30  0 

29  7  29  5  29  2  29  0 

43 

33  0  32  7 

32  4  32  1 

31  8 

31  6 

31  331  030  730  5 

30  2 

29  9  29  7  29  4  29  2 

44 

33  333  032  732  432  1 

31  8 

31  531  231  030  7 

30  4 

30  2J29  9  29  7 

29  4 

45 

4a 

33  6 

QQ  « 

33  2 

QQ  5 

32  9  32  6 

00  0  OO  Q 

32  3 

39  A' 

32  0 

39  3 

31  8 
39  n 

31  5 

31  7 

31  2  30  9 

31  431  9 

307 
3n  Q 

30  4 
20  fi 

30  1 
30  4 

29  9 
.20  1 

29  6 
2Q  Q 

47 
48 
49 
50 

51 
62 
53 
54 
55 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


34  033 
34  334 
34  534 

34  8  34 

35  034 
35  234 
35  435 
35  735 

35  9  35 

36  135 
36  336 
36  536 
36  736 
36  936 


132  8 
333  0 
633  3 

833  5. 

033  7 
2  33  9 
5|34  Ij 
734  4! 

934  6| 

34  8 
335  0 
5)35  2 
7135  4 

935  6 


32  5|32 

32  7|32 

33  0  32 
33  2:32 

33  4!33 

33  6|33 
133  8  33 

34  1  33 
34  3  34 


2  31  9  31 
432  231 

732  432 
932  632 

1  32  8  32 

3  33  0  32 
533  232 

733  533 
033  733 


731  4 
931  7 
131  8 
332  0 

532  21 

732  5 
9  32  7 
232  9 
433  1 


31  130 
31  331 
31  531 

31  831 

32  031 
32  2  31 
32  432 
32  632 
32  832 


830  630 
130  830 

331  030 
531  2,31 

731  431 

931  631 

31  831 

332  031 
5  32  2  32 


233  933  633  3  33  032  732  432  231  9 
434  133  8|33  5  ;33  232  932  6|32  332  1 


34  5  34 

34  934  634  334  033  7||33  4J33  132  8J32  532  3 

35  1  34  8  34  5  34  1  33  9  33  6  33  3  33  0  32  7  32  4 
|35  335  0134  6  34  3  34  0  33  733  533  2,32  9  32  6 


330  1 
530  3 
7  30  5 
0  30  7 

2  30  9 
431  1 
6;31  3 
831  5 
7 


496 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 
Statures  from  121  to  135  centimetres;  weights  from  11  to  60  kilograms 


Statures  in  centimetres 


121  122  123  124  125  126  127  128  129  130  131  132  133  134  135 


11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

61 
52 
53 
54 
55 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 


18  418  218  1  17  917  8 

18  9  18  8  18  6  18  5  18  3 

19  419  3!l9  1'19  018  8 


19  9  19  819  619  4 

20  4  20  2,20  0  19  9 


20  8  20  7  20  5  20  3  20  2 


20  9  20  7 


20  6 


21  0 


21  221  1 

21  621  521  321 

22  021  921  721  521  3 
22  4  22  2  22  1  21  9  21  7 


19  3 

19  7| 


17  7  17  5 

18  2  18  0 

18  7  18  5 

19  1  19  0 
19  6  19  4 


17  4 

17  9 

18  4 

18  8 

19  3 

19  7 


17  2 

17  7 

18  2 

18  7 

19  1 

19  5 


17  1 

17  6 

18  1 

18  5 

19  0 

19  4 


17  016  816  7 
17  517  3:17  2 


19  9 


22 
23 
23 
23 

24 

24 
24 
25 
25 
25 


822 
223 


523  323  1 


823 
224 


524  3!24  1 

824 


425 


725 


20  0  19  8 

20  4  20  2  20  1 

20  8  20  6  20  5  20  3 

21  2J21  020  8|20  7[20  5 
21  521  421  221  020  9 


17  9 

18  4 

18  8 

19  2 


19  8 

20  2 


19  6 


17  8  17  7 


18  3 

18  7 

19  1 


16  616  5 

17  1  17  0 
17  5  17  4 

17  917  9 

18  4  18  3 


18  9 


19  5  19  3 


6  22  4  22  2  22  1 
022  822  622  4 


22  9  22  8 


623  423  323  1 
0,23  8  23  6  23  4 


23  9  23  7 


624  424  224  0 
24  924  724  524  3 
225  024  824  6 
5  25  3  25  1  24  9 


21  9!21 

22  2,22 
22  6|22 

22  9  22 

23  223 

23  523 
23  823 


721 


621  421 
21  9  21  721 
222  0,21 
522  422 
8  22  7  22 


422 
722 


022 
323  1 


24  1 


24  424 
24  724 


26  025  725  525  325  1 
26  2  26  Ol25  8|25  6  25  4 
26  526  3J26  l!25  9  25  7 

26  826  626  326  1 

27  026  826  626  4  26  2 

27  3  27  1  26  8-26  6  26  4 
27  527  327  126  926  7 

27  827  627  3|27  126  9 

28  027  827  6!27  3  27  1 
28  328  027  827  6  27  4 


623 


23  923 


224 
524 


24  9  24  7  24 

25  2!25  024 


25  525  325  1 
25  725  525  3 


23  022 
4  23  3  23 
7  23  5  23 
023  823 
324  123 


18  8  18  7 

19  2  19  0 
19  6  19  4 
19  9  19  8 

20  7  20  6  20  4  20  3  20  1 


20  019  9  19  7 
20  4  20  2  20  1 


21  120 
21  421 

21  7,21 

22  021 

22  322 


8  22  6'22 
1  S22  9  22 
4  -23  2  23 
6  23  523 

9  23  7  23 


524  324  2 
824  6|24  4 


24  9  24  7 


26  025  825  625  425  2 


26 
26 
26 
26 

27 


226 


25  1 


24  9 


426 
726 
926 


9  20  7  20 

221  120 
521  421 
821  7j21 

222  021 

422  3  22 
722  622 
0  22  8  22 
323  122 
523  423 


620  4 
920  8 


221 
521 


821  7 

121  9 
422  2 
7J22  5 
922  8 
223  0 


24  0  23  8  23  6  23  4  23  3 
24  2  24  1  23  9  23  7  23  5 
24  5  24  3  24  1  23  9  23  8 

24  7  24  5  24  4  24  2  24  0 

25  024  824  624  424  2 


025  825  625  4  25  2'25  024  8'24  6^24  5 
2  26  0  25  8125  6  25  4  25  2  25  1  24  9  24  7 
5|26  326  125  9  25  7  25  5  25  325  1  24  9 
7J26  526  3!26  1|25  925  725  525  3  25  1 
26  926  726  5:26  3  26  1  25  9  25  7  25  5  25  3 


28  5  28  3  28  0!27  8  27  6  27  4  27  1  26  9  26  7  26  5  26  3  26  1  25  9  25  7  25  5 

28  7'28  528  328  027  8:27  627  427  226  926  7  26  526  3  26  1  25  9  25  7 

29  028  7|28  528  228  0  27  827  6  27  4  27  2;26  9  26  7i26  526  326  125  9 


29  2  28  9:28  7 


28  528  2|28  027  827  627  4|27  2  26  926  7  26  5  26  3  26  1 


29  429  228  928  728  5  j28  228  027  827  627  4  27  2  26  9  26  7  26  5  26  3 

29  629  429  128  928  7  128  428  228  0'27  827  6  27  427  126  9  26  7  26  5 

29  829  629  3|29  128  9:28  6|28  428  2  28  0127  8  27  5  27  3  27  126  926  7 

30  029  829  529  329  1  28  828  6  28  4  28  228  0127  7  27  5  27  3  27  1  26  9 
30  230  029  7:29  529  3|!29  0:28  828  628  428  1  27  9  27  7  27  527  327  1 


29  2;29  028  828  628  3  28  1 


30  630  430  1!29  9  29  7  29  4|29  229  028 

30  930  6!30  3:30  129  9  29  6129  429  228 

31  030  830  530  3|30  0  129  8:29  6J29  3  29 
31  231  0:30  7|30  530  2||30  0|29  8J29  5!29 
31  431  2  30  9  30  7  30  4  30  2  20  9  29  7  29 


728  5  28  328  127  9  27  7  27  5 


928  7H28  528  328  1 


31  631  431  130  930  6 

31  831  531  331  030  8 

32  031  7:31  5  31  2:31  0 
32  231  931  731  431 


329 


27  9  27  7 


28  9!  28  728  528  228  0!27  8 
1  28  928  628  428  2J28  0 
3|29  Oi28  8128  6  28  4  28  2 


529 


30  4'30  1  29  9  29  7  29  4  |29  2;29  0  28  8  28  6  28  3 
30  5  30  3  30  1 

30  7  30  5  30  2  30  0;29  8  |29  5J29  3|29  1  28  9  28  7 
1:30  9  30  7  30  4  30  2  29  9  29  7i29  5  29  3  29  1  28  8 


32  4  32  1  31  8  31  6,31  3;  31  1  30  8  30  6  30  3  30  1  29  9  29  7  29  4  29  2  29  0 


CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


497 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  136  to  150  centimetres;  weights  from  26  to  75  kilograms 


_= 
9 

-§ 
'i 


. 


Statures  in  centimetres 


136 


137 


138 


139 


140 


141 


142 


143  144  145 


146 


147 


148  149  150 


26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

51 
62 
53 
54 
65 

56 
67 
68 
59 
60 

61 
62 
63 
64 
65 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

71 
72 
73 
74 
75 


821  621 
121  921 
322  222 
622  422 
8  22  7  22 


521 

721 
021 
3!22 
522 


3  21 
621 
821 


3  24  1  23 
5  24  3  24 
7  24  5  24 
9  24  8  24 
1  25  0  24 


923 
124 
424 
624 

824 


823 
0  23 
2  24 
424 
6,24 


4  25  2  25  0  24  8  24  6 
625  425  225  024  8 
8  25  6  25  4  25  2  25  0 
0  25  8  25  6  25  4  25  2 
226  025  825  6^5  4 

326  2  26  0*25  8  25  6 

5  26  3  26  2  26  0  25  8 
7(26  526  326  126  0 
926  726  526  326  1 
126  926  726  526  3 


21  020 
21  321 
21  5  21 

21  8  21 

22  0,21 

22  3'22 
22  522 

22  8  22 

23  022 
23  2  23 

23  4  23 
23  6  23 

23  823 

24  0  23 
24  3  24 


21  521  421 

21  721  621 

22  021  821 
22  222  021 
22  4  22  3  22 


323 
523 
7:23 
923 
1J23 


1  22  9  22  8 
3  23  1 23  0 
5  23  3  23  2 
7  23  5  23  4 
9  23  7  23  6 


27  327  126  9  26  7  26  5 
27  427  227  126  9  26  7 
27  6|27  427  2;27  0  26  8 

27  8  27  6  27  4  27  2  27  0 

28  0  27  8  27  6  27  4  27  2 


24  524  324  123  923  8 
24  7  24  5  24  3  24  1  24  0 

24  8  24  7  24  5  24  3  23  2 

25  024  924  7  24  5  24  3 
25  225  0,24  924  724  5 

25  425  225  1J24  924  7 
25  6  25  4  25  2  25  1  24  9 

25  8  25  6  25  4'25  2  25  1 

26  0  25  8  25  6  25  4  25  2 
26  1  25  9  25  8  25  6  25  4 


019  919  7 
3  20  1  20  0 
5  20  4  20  2 
820  620  5 

0  20  9  20  7 

221  1  20  9 

521  321  2 

7.21  5  21  4 
921  721  6 

1.22  021  8 

3  22  2  22  0 

522  422  2 
7  22  6  22  4 
9  22  8  22  6 

1  23  0  22  8 


23  6  23 

23  823 

24  023 
24  224 
24  4  24 


1'27  927  727 
3  28  1  27  9;27 
528  328  127 

6  28  4  28  2  28 

8  28  6  28  4|28 

9  28  7!28  5'28 
1  28  9  28  7;28 

3  29  0  28  8'28 

4  29  2  29  0  28 

629  429  1|28 

7  29  529  3-29 
929  629  429 
029  829  629 
229  929  729 
3  30  1  29  9  29 

4',30  2  30  0  29 

630  430  1!29 
7  30  5  30  3  30 
9  30  6  30  4  30 
0  30  8  30  6  30 


26  326 
26  5  26 
26  6  26 

26  826 

27  0  26 

27  1!26 

27  327 
27  527 
27  627 
27  8  27 


1  25 

3  26  1  25 

5  26  3  26 

6  26  4  26 
826  626 

9  26  8!26 
126  926 

3  27  1  26 

4  27  2  27 
6  27  4  27 


7  25  6 

925  7 
1;25  9 
226  1 
426  2 

6'26 
726 

926  7 
0  26  8 
2|27  0 


25  4  25 
25  625 
25  725 

25  925 

26  025 


5  23  3  23 

6  23  5  23 

8  23  7  23 
0  23  9  23 
2  24  0  23 

4  24  224 

6  24  4  24 

7  24  6  24 

9  24  7  24 
124  924 

225  1  24 
4  25  2  25 
625  425 
7  25  5  25 
9  25  7  25 


1  23  0 
323  2 
523  4 


723 


7!25  5 
8  25  7 
0,25  8 
126  0 
3:26  1 


27  9  27  7|27  5  27  3  27  1  27  0  26  8!26  6*26  4!26  2 

28  1  27  9  27  7  27  5,27  3  27  1  26  9  26  7  26  6  26  4 
28  2  28  0  27  8  27  6  27  4  27  3  27  1  26  9  26  7^6  5 
28  428  228  027  827  6  27  4;27  2,27  026  826  7 
28  528  3j28  127  9  27  7  27  5  27  4  27  2  27  026  8 


128  9  28  728  5'28  328 
2  29  0  28  8  28  6  28  4  28 
429  2J29  028  S2&  628 

5  29  3  29  1  28  9  28  7j28 

6  29  4  29  2  29  0  28  8  28 

s'29  6  29  429  2  29  0 28 
929  7  29  529  329  128 

129  8  29  629  429  229 
2  30  0  29  8  29  6  29  4  29 
330  1,29  929  729  529 


127  9  27  727  527  327  l'26  9 
228  0  27  827  627  427  327  1 
428  2  28  027  827  627  427  2 
5'28  3  28  1  27  9  27  7  27  5  27  3 
6J28  4  28  2.28  027  827  727  5 

8  28  6  28  4  28  228  0  27  827  6 

9  28  7  128  5  28  3  28  1  27  9|27  7 
0  28  8  '28  6  28  4  28  2  28  0  27  9 
2  29  0  28  8  28  6  28  4  28  2  28  0 
329  1  28  928  7|28  528  328  1 


498 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  151  to  165  centimetres;  weights  from  26  to  75  kilograms 


a  <n 

-sa 

™  03 

•SB, 

•3 .3 


Statures  in  centimetres 


151    152 


153 


154 


155 


156 


157 


158 


159 


160 


161    162    163    164    165 


26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

51 
52 
63 
54 
55 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 

61 
62 
63 
64 
65 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

71 
72 
73 

74 
75 


19  6  19  5 
19  9,19  7 


19  4  19  2 
19  6  19  5 


20  120  019  819  7 
20  3  20  2  20  1  19  9 
20  620  420  320 


8  20  7  20 
0  20  9  20 
221  l'21 

521  3|21 

721  521 

921  721 
121  921 
322  1!22 

522  322 
622  522 


19  1 
19  4 
19  6 
19  8 
0 


19  OJ18  9  18  7  18  6  18  5  18  4  18  3 
19  2  19  1  19  0  18  9|18  7  18  6  18  5 


18  0 


19  5 


19  319  2:19  1  19  0 


220 

5'20  420  3 
8  20  6  20  5 
020  8i20  7 
221  020  9 
421  221  1 


18  9  18  7 

19  1  19  0 
19  3  19  2 

20  1J20  OJ19  9  19  8|l9  6  [19  5  19  4 


18  4  18  3 
18  618  5 

18  818  7 

19  1  18  9 


18  6 
18  8 


19  319  219  0 


20  4'20  220  1  20  0  19  81  19  7  19  6  19  5J19  4  19  2 


20  620  420  320  220  0  19  9  19  8 


19  7il9  6  19  4 


621  421  3 
821  621  5 
021  821  7 
222  021  9 
422  222  1 


22  8  22  7  22  5!22  4  22  2  22  1  22 

23  022  922  7i22  622  4  22  322 
23  2  23  0;22  9'22  7122  6  22  5  22 


20  8  20  6:20  5  20  4  20  2;  20  1^20  0  19  9  19  8  19  6 

21  020  8:20  7  20  620  4  20  3  20  220  1  19  9  19  8 

21  2  21  0  20  9  20  8'20  e';20  5  20  4  20  3  20  1  20  0 
21  4|21  2|21  1^21  020  8  20  7120  6120  420  320  2 
21  6|21  421  3|21  1|21  0  20  920  820  6:20  520  4 
21  7121  621  521  3;21  2  |21  1  20  9;20  8,20  720  6 
21  9  21  8  21  6  21  5!21  4  21  2  21  1  21  0:20  9  20  7 


021 


23  423  2123  1!22  9  22  8 
23  6,23  4  23  2  23  1  22  9 

23  7  23  6  23  4  23  3  23  1 
23  9  23  7  23  6  23  4  23  3 


24  123  923  8;23  6 


24  2  24  1 


23  4 


23  923  823  6 


24  4  24  2  24  1  23  9  23  8 

24  6  24  4  24  2  24  1  23  9 
24  7  24  6  24  4!24  2!24  1 

24  924  724  524  424  2 

25  024  924  7|24  524  4 
25  2  25  0  24  9  24  7  24  5 


25  325  225  024  824  7 
25  525  325  2|25  0:24  8 
25  625  525  3l25  125  0 
25  8:25  6  25  4  25  3  25  1 
25  9,25  8,25  6  25  4  25  3 


26  1>25  9'25  725 
26  2  26  025  9  25 
26  426  226  025 

1 


625 


26  6  26  5  26  3  26  1 


26  826  626  4  26  2  26  1 


26  9  26  7  26  5  26  4 

27  0  26  9  26  7  26  5 


4 
5 
7 

26  0  25  8 
25  9 


725 

825 


27  2|27  026  826  6126  5 


26  2 
26  3 


821  7121  5 
22  021  921  7 

222  021  9 
22  6J22  522  322  222  1 
22  8  22  7  22  5  22  4  22  2 


322 


23  1 

23  3  23  1  23  022  9  22  7  22  6  22  4  22  3  22  2 


21  421  3'21  2'21  020  9 
21  621  521  321  221  1 
21  8:21  621  5:21  421  2 

21  921  821  721  521  4 

22  122  0,21  8J21  7  21  6 

7 
9 
22  0 


23  5123  323  223  022  9  22  722  6  22  4  22  3  22  2 
23  6,23  523  323  223  0i22  922  722  6:22  5  22  3 


23  823  623  523  323 
23  923  8l23  623  523 


24  1 


23  923  823  623 


24  224  123  9i23  823 
24  424  224  123  923 


24  7  24  5|24  4  24  2  24 

24  8J24  7  24  5  24  3J24 

25  0  24  8  24  6  24  5  24 
25  124  924  824  624 

1 


21  23  022 
3  23  2|23 

5  |23  323 

6  <23  5i23 

8  :23  6J23 

9  23  8*23 
1!  23  923 
2|i24  0|23 
3i  24  2j24 
5  24  3:24 


9  22  7:22  6  22  5 

0|22  922  822  6 

2i23  022  9  22  8 

3  23  2  23  0!22  9 

523  323  2;23  0 

6  23  5!23  3  23  2 
823  623  523  3 
923  723  623  5 
OJ23  923  723  6 
2  24  0  23  9  23  7 


24  4'24  3  24  1  24 
25  3125  225  124  924  7  24  624  424  324 
25  5j25  325  225  024  9:!24  7J24  624  424 
25  625  525  325  2J25  0  24  824  724  524 
25  825  6J25  4  25  3  25  1  25  024  8  24  7  24 

25  1  24  9  24  8  24 


26  226  025  8  25  7  25  5 
26  3J26  126  025  825  6 


27  327  126  926  826  6  26  4126  226  125  925  8 
27  427  227  126  9^26  7,  26  5^26  426  226  0^5  9 


27  527  427  2|27  0  26  8 
27  727  5127  327  127  0 
27  827  627  4127  3  27  1 
27  927  727  627  427  2 


26  726  526  326  226  0 
26  826  626  4:26  326  1 


27  026  926  7,26  526  4 


25  2  25  1 
25  4|25  2  25 
25  5  25  3:25 
25  6  25  4  25 

25  725  625 

25  8  25  7  25 

26  025  8,25 
26  1  25  9  25 
26  2  26  0  25 


24  924 


024 
225 
325 

425 
525 
625 

825 
925 


023  9 

124  0 
324  1 

424  2 
5  24  4 

624  5 
824  6 
924  7 

024  9 

125  0 

1 

425  2 
525  3 

625  4 
725  6 


CALCULATING  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 


499 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 
Statures  from  166  to  180  centimetres;  weights  from  46  to  95  kilograms 


C  03 

SI 

Statures 

in  centimetres 

§!> 

|| 

1 

II 

166 

167 

168 

169 

170  1  171 

172 

173 

174 

175 

176 

177  (  178 

179 

180 

46 

21  6 

21  5 

21  3 

21  2 

21  1 

21  0 

20  8 

20  7 

20  6 

20  5 

20  4 

I 
20  2  20  1 

| 
20  019  9 

47 

21  721  621  521  421  2  21  1 

21  020  920  720  6 

20  5  20  4  20  3  20  2  20  lv 

48 

21  921  821  621  521  4  21  3 

21  1 

21  020  920  8 

20  6  20  5  20  4 

20  3  20  2 

49 

22  021  921  821  721  5  21  4 

21  3 

21  2  21  020  9 

20  8  20  7  20  6  20  4  20  3 

60 

22  222  121  921  821  7 

21  5 

21  4 

21  321  2 

21  1 

20  9 

20  8  20  7 

20  6  20  5 

61 

22  3  22  2  22  1  21  9  21  8 

21  7 

21  6 

21  4 

21  3 

21  3 

21  1 

20  9  20  8 

20  720  6 

62 

22  522  422  222  122  0  21  8 

21  721  621  521  4 

21  321  121  020  920  7 

63 

22  6  22  5  22  4  22  2  22  1 

22  0 

21  821  721  621  5 

21  421  321  1 

21  020  9 

64 

22  8  22  6  22  5  22  4  22  2 

22  1 

22  021  921  721  6 

21  521  421  321  1 

21  0 

66 

22  922  822  622  522  4 

22  2 

22  1 

22  0,21  921  7 

21  621  521  421  321  1 

66 

23  0  22  9  22  8  22  6  22  5 

22  4 

22  222  122  021  9 

21  721  621  521  4'21  3 

67 
68 

23  2  23  0  22  9  22  8  22  6  22  5 
23  3  23  2  23  0  22  9  22  8  22  6 

22  422  222  122  0 
22  5  22  4  22  2  22  1 

21  921  721  621  521  4 
22  021  921  721  621  5 

69 
60 

61 
62 
63 
64 
66 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

71 
72 
73 
74 
76 

76 
77 
78 
79 
80 

81 
82 
83 
84 
86 

86 
87 
88 
89 
90 

91 
92 
93 
94 
96 


23  523 
23  6  23 

23  723 

23  8  23 

24  OJ23 
24  1  24 
24  224 

24  324 
24  524 
24  624 
24  724 
24  824 


323 
4,23 


723 
823 
023 
123 

224 
324 
424 
624 

724 


4  23  3  23  2 
6  23  4  23  3 
7'23  5  23  4 
8|23  723  5 
9,23  8  23  6 

1  23  9  23  7 
224  023  9 

3  24  2  24  0 

4  24  3  24  1 

5  24  4  24  2 


J22  8  22 

J22  9  22 

23  022 
23  123 
23  323 
23  423 
23  523 


622  5,22 

8  22  6,22 

9  22  8,22 

022  922 
1  23  0  22 
323  l!23 
4  23  2  23 

523  4'23 

623  523 
723  623 
8j23  7j23 

023  823 


422 
522 


22 

•2-2 


122  021 

2  22  1  22 


5  22 
6 
7  J22 

9  22 
0  22 


222 
5  22  4  22 
622  522 
7,22  622 
822  722 


921  721  6 
021  921  7 

1!22  021  9 
222  122  0 
422  222  1 
5  22  3  22  2 
6,22  5|22  3 


I|i23  022  822  722  622  4 
2;  23  1:22  922  822  722  6 
3,23  223  122  9  22  8  22  7 
4IJ23  323  223  022  922  8 
6;;23  423  323  2  23  0!22  9 


24  924  824  624  524  4 "24  224  123  923  823  7  23  523  423  323  l'23  0 

25  124  924  824  6  24  5  24  3;24  224  023  923  8  23  623  5  23  4  23  2  23  1 
25  2,25  024  924  724  6  ;24  4124  324  224  023  9  23  723  623  523  323  2 
25  325  125  024  824  7  24  5!24  4;24  324  124  0  23  9  23  7  23  623  5  23  3 
25  425  325  1  25  024  8  24  7  24  524  4:24  2  24  1  24  023  823  723  6  23  4 


5  25  4  25 
625  525 

7  25  6  25 

8  25  7125 

0  25  8J25 

1  25  925 

2  26  0  25 
326  126 
4  26  2  26 
526  326 

6  26  4  26 

7  26  5  26 

8  26  6  26 

9  26  7  26 
026  8,26 

Ij26  926 

2  27  0  26 

3  27  1  27 
427  227 
5,27  3  27 


225  124 

3  25  2  25 

4  25  3  25 
5'25  425 
6,25  5  25 

8  25  6'25 

925  725 

025  825 

1 

2  26  0  25 


9  24  8  24 

0  24  9  24 

1  25  0  24 

2  25  124 

3  :25  2  25 

5  i25  3^25 

6  25  4  25 

7  25  5  25 

8  25  6  25 

9  25  7  25 


3  26  1  26  0 
426  226  1 

5  26  3  26  2 

6  26  426  3 
7,26  5  26  4 

826  626  5 
9  26  7  26  6 

0  26  8  26  7 

1  26  9  26  7 

2  27  0  26  8 


624  5!24  324  2M24  1  23  9  23  823  723  5 
7i24  624  424  3J  24  224  023  923  823  6 
824  7|24  624  4  24  324  124  023  923  7 
9  24  8  24  7  24  5  |24  4  24  2  24  1  24  0  23  8 
1  24  9  24  8  24  6  ,24  5  24  3  24  2  24  1  23  9 

225  o'24  9(24  7  24  624  424  3^24  2^4  0 
325  1!25  024  8  24  724  524  424  3  24  1 
4  25  2  25  1  24  9  24  8  24  6  24  5  24  4  24  2 
525  325  225  0  24  9  24  7  24  6  24  5  24  3 
6!25  4,25  3,25  1  25  0  24  8,24  7,24  6  24  4 


25  825 

25  9  25 

26  025 
26  126 
26  226 


26 
26  426 
26  5  26 
26  626 
26  7  26 


7  25  5  25 
825  625 
9  25  7  25 

0  25  8  25 

1  25  9  25 

2  26  0*25 
2  26  1  25 
326  226 
4!26  326 
5,26  4,26 


4'25  2 
525  3 
625  4 
725  5 
825  6 

925  7 
925  8 
025  9 
126  0 
226  1 


25  6  25 
25  625 
25  7  25 
25  825 
25  9  25 


425  325 

5  25  4  25 

6  25  5  25 
725  525 
825  625 


1  25  0 
225  1 
325  2 
425  3 
5  25  3 


MONTESSOBI. — Antrop.  pedag. 


500 


PEDAGOGICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 


CALCULATIONS  OF  THE  PONDERAL  INDEX 

Statures  from  181  to  195  centimetres;  weights  from  46  to  95  kilograms 


.5  °° 

!,& 

'53,2 
£3 

Statures  in  centimetres 

181 

182 

183 

184 

185 

186 

187 

188 

189 

190 

191 

192 

193 

194 

195 

46 

19  8 

19  7 

19  6 

19  5 

19  4  19  3 

19  2 

19  1 

19  0 

18  9  18  8 

18  7 

18  618  5 

18  4 

47 

19  9  19  8  19  7 

19  6  19  5  19  4 

19  319  219  1 

19  0  18  9 

18  818  718  618  5 

48 

20  1 

20  019  919  719  6  19  5 

19  4  19  3  19  2 

19  1  19  0 

18  918  8J18  718  6 

49 

20  2 

20  1 

20  0  19  9  19  8  19  7 

19  6  19  519  4 

19  3  19  2 

19  1  19  018  9  18  8 

50 

20  4 

20  2 

20  120  019  9  19  8 

19  7 

19  6  19  5 

19  4  19  3 

19  219  1  19  018  9 

61 

20  5 

20  4 

20  3 

20  2 

20  0  19  9 

19  8  19  7  19  6 

19  5  19  419  3 

19  2  19  1 

19  0 

52 

20  6  20  5 

20  4 

20  3 

20  2  20  1 

20  019  9  19  8 

19  6  19  5  19  4 

19  3  19  2  19  1 

63 

20  8  20  6 

20  5 

20  4 

20  3  20  220  120  019  9 

19  8  19  7  19  6 

19  519  419  3 

64 

20  9  20  8  20  7  20  5 

20  4  20  3  20  2  20  1  20  0 

19  9  19  8  19  7 

19  6 

19  5,19  4 

66 

21  0 

20  9  20  8 

20  7 

20  6  20  4  20  3  20  2 

20  1 

20  0,  19  919  8 

19  7 

19  6  19  5 

66 

21  1 

21  0 

20  9 

20  8 

20  7  20  6  20  5  20  4  20  2  20  1!  20  0  19  9 

19  8 

19  7 

19  6 

67 

21  3 

21  1 

21  020  9 

20  8 

20  720  620  520  420  3 

20  2  20  0. 

19  9 

19  8 

19  7 

68 

21  4 

21  3 

21  221  0 

20  9 

20  8  20  7  20  6;20  5  20  4 

20  3  20  2 

20  1 

20  0 

19  9 

69 

21  5 

21  4 

21  3 

21  2 

21  0 

20  9  20  8  20  7  20  6  20  5 

.20  4^20  3 

20  2 

20  1 

20  0 

60 

21  6 

21  5 

21  4 

21  3 

21  2 

(21  020  920  820  7 

20  6 

20  5^0  4 

20  3 

20  2 

20  1 

61 

21  7 

21  6 

21  5 

21  4 

21  3 

21  221  0 

20  9  20  8 

20  7 

20  6  20  5 

20  4 

20  3 

20  2 

62 

21  9 

21  7 

21  6 

21  5 

21  4 

21  3 

21  2 

21  1 

20  9  20  8 

20  7  20  6 

20  5 

20  4 

20  3 

63 

22  021  921  7l21  6 

21  5 

21  421  3 

21  2 

21  1 

20  9  20  8  20  7 

20  6 

20  5 

20  4 

64 

22  122  021  921  7 

21  6 

21  521  4 

21  3 

21  221  1 

;20  9  20  8 

20  7 

20  6  20  5 

65 

22  2  22  1 

22  021  9 

21  7 

21  621  5 

21  4 

21  3  21  2 

(21  1  20  9 

20  8 

20  7  20  6 

66 

22  3  22  2  22  1  22  0 

21  8 

21  721  6 

21  5 

21  421  3 

21  221  0 

20  9 

20  8 

20  7 

67 

22  422  3 

22  2 

22  1 

22  0 

21  821  7 

21  6 

21  521  4 

21  321  2 

21  0 

20  9 

20  8 

68 

22  6  22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  1 

21  921  8 

21  7 

21  621  5 

21  4 

21  3 

21  2 

21  0 

20  9 

69 

22  7  22  5 

22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  1  21  9 

21  8 

21  721  6 

21  5 

21  3 

21  3 

21  1 

21  0 

70 

22  8  22  6 

22  5 

22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  0 

21  9 

21  821  7 

21  6 

21  5 

21  4 

21  2 

21  1 

71 

22  9  22  8  22  6 

22  5 

22  4 

22  3 

22  1 

22  0 

21  921  8 

21  7 

21  6 

21  5 

21  3 

21  2 

72 

23  0  22  9  22  7 

22  6 

22  5 

22  4  22  2 

22  1 

22  0 

21  9 

21  8 

21  7 

21  6 

21  4 

21  3 

73 

23  1 

23  0  22  8 

22  7 

22  6 

22  522  3 

22  2 

22  1 

22  0 

21  9 

21  8 

21  7 

21  5 

21  4 

74 

23  2 

23  1  22  9  22  8 

22  7 

22  6  22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  1 

22  0 

21  9 

21  8 

21  6 

21  5 

76 

23  3 

23  2  23  0  22  9 

22  8 

22  7 

22  6 

22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  1 

22  0 

21  8 

21  7 

21  6 

76 

23  4 

23  3  23  1 

23  0 

22  9 

22  8 

22  7 

22  5 

22  4  22  3 

22  2 

22  1 

21  9 

21  8 

21  7 

77 

23  5 

23  4|23  2 

23  1 

23  0 

22  9  22  8 

22  6;22  5  22  4 

22  3 

22  2 

22  0 

21  9 

21  8 

78 

23  6 

23  5  23  3 

23  2 

23  1 

23  0  22  9 

22  7  22  6  22  5 

22  4 

22  3 

22  1 

22  0 

21  9 

79 

23  7 

23  623  423  323  2 

23  1 

22  9 

22  8  22  7  22  6 

22  5 

22  3  22  2  22  1 

22  0 

80 

23  8 

23  7  23  5,23  4 

23  3 

23  2  23  0 

22  9  22  8 

22  7 

22  6 

22  4  22  3  22  2 

22  1 

81 

23  9 

23  8  23  6  23  5 

23  4 

23  3 

23  1 

23  0  22  9 

22  8 

22  7 

22  5  22  4  22  3 

22  2 

82 

24  0 

23  9  23  7  23  6  23  5 

23  4  23  2 

23  1  23  0  22  9 

22  7 

22  6  22  5  22  4 

22  3 

83 

24  1 

24  0  23  8  23  7 

23  6 

23  5  23  3 

23  2 

23  1 

23  0 

22  8  22  7  22  6  22  5 

22  4 

84 

24  2 

24  123  923  8 

23  7 

23  5  23  4 

23  3  23  2 

23  1 

22  9  22  8  22  7  22  6 

22  5 

85 

24  3 

24  2  24  0  23  9  23  8, 

23  6  23  5 

23  4  23  3 

23  1 

23  0  22  9  22  8  22  7 

22  5 

86 

24  4 

24  3  24  1 

24  0 

23  9 

23  7  23  6 

23  5  23  4  23  2 

23  1 

23  0  22  9  22  8 

22  6 

87 

24  5 

24  3  24  2  24  1 

24  0 

23  8 

23  7 

23  623  4^23  3 

23  2  23  1  23  0 

22  8 

22  7 

88 

24  6 

24  4  24  3  24  2 

24  0 

23  9 

23  8 

23  7  23  5  23  4 

23  3  23  2  23  0 

22  9 

22  8 

89 

24  7 

24  5  24  4  24  3 

24  1 

24  0  23  9 

23  7  23  6  23  5 

23  4  23  3  23  1  23  0 

22  9 

90 

24  8 

24  6  24  5  24  4 

24  2 

24  1 

24  0  23  8  23  7 

23  6 

23  5 

23  3  23  2  23  1 

23  0 

91 

24  9 

24  7  24  6  24  4 

24  3 

24  2 

24  1 

23  9  23  8 

23  7 

23  5 

23  4  23  3 

23  2 

23  1 

92 

24  9 

24  8  24  7  24  5 

24  4 

24  3 

24  1  24  0  23  9  23  8 

23  6  23  5  23  4 

23  3 

23  1 

93 

25  0  24  9  24  8  24  6  24  5 

24  4 

24  2  24  1  24  0  23  8 

23  7  23  6  23  5 

23  4 

23  2 

94 

25  1  25  0  24  8  24  7  24  6 

24  4 

24  3  24  2  24  1 

23  9 

23  8  23  7  23  6 

23  4 

23  3 

95 

25  2.25  1 

24  9 

24  8 

24  7  ;24  5 

24  4 

24  3 

24  1 

24  0 

23  9 

1 

23  8  23  6 

23  5 

23  4 

INDEX 

(A. — Names) 


AGYBA,  Hilany,  110 
Alix,  319 
Ammon,  217 
Aristotle,  9 
Auvard,  Alfred,  175 

BAJ^NOFF,  N.,  250 

Bateson,  William,  63 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  v.,  268 

Bellini,  264 

Bencivenni,  Ildebrando,  15 

Benedickt,  446 

Bianco,  131 

Bichat,  Xavier,  183 

Binet,  Alfred,   184,  217,  219,  223,  230, 

231,  235,  244,  250,  273,  274,  275 
Bischoff,  Theodor  L.  W.,  229 
Blumenbach,  Johann  Friedrich,  320 
Bonnifay,  Jules,  165,  166,  235 
Borghese,  Pauline,  267,  270 
Botticelli,  Sandro,  80 
Boxich,  G.  T.,  101,  102 
Boyd,  225,  227 
Broca,  Paul,  1,  2,  201,  208,  210,  212,  213, 

221,  228,  229,  243,  250,  251,  254,  321, 

364,  377,  382 

Brugia,  Raffaele,  244,  271,  355 
Bruno,  Giordano,  340 
Buff  on,  110 
Byron,  Lord,  256 

CABANIS,  135 
Caianus,  110 
Calcagni,  Menotti,  416 
Calori,  229 
Camper,  370,  382 
Carducci,  Giosue,  15,  470 
Carrara,  Mario,  318 
Cassan,  154 

Cavalieri,  Lina,  264,  267 
Celli,  160 
Cervesato,  153 
Collignon,  Rene,  73,  381 
Correns,  50 
Cromwell,  Oliver,  256 
Cu6not,  Lucien,  51 
Cuvier,  256,  260 

DAFFNER,  Franz,  138,  236,  237 
Dante,  246,  359 
Darbishire,  55 


Darwin,  Charles,  2,  3,  46,  264,  280,  340, 

455 

Davenport,  Charles  Benedict,  455 
De  Giovanni,  Achille,  11-14,  17,  96,  98, 

99,  101,  364,  428,  465 
Deniker.  Joseph,  109,  110,  211,  217,  242, 

243 
DeSanctis,  Sante,   146,   149,   151,   156, 

281,  319,  352,  408,  409,  425,  446 
Dubois,  Eugene,  192,  257 
Duncan,  173 
Dunker,  455 

FAWCETTE,  217 
Fenelon,  142 
Fere",  Ch.,  301 
Ferri,  Enrico,  250 
Ferriani,  Lino,  413 
Figueira,  Fernandes,  113 
Fraebelius,  296 

G  ALTON,  Francis,  455 
Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  340 
Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire,  Ettienne,  46 
Godin,  Paul,  83,  182,  282,  298,  309,  325 
Goethe,  469 
Goldstein,  284,  296 
Gosio,  137 

HAECKEL,  Ernst  Heinrich,  38,  200,  343 

Heinke,  455 

Helguero,  Fernando  de,  460 

Herodotus,  340 

Hertoghe,  155 

Holler,  von,  208 

Homer,  339 

Hrdlifcka,  Ales,  84,  128,  218,  349 

Humphry,  200 

Huxley,  38 

Hurst,  C.  C.,  50 

INGERSLEVS,  173 

JAEST,  110 

James,  William,  140 

Johannson,  217 

KOCH,  Robert,  159 
Kollman,  210 

LALOY,  40 
Lamarck,  2,  46 

501 


502 


INDEX 


Lange,  140 

Lapique,  Louis,  257 

Lasegue,  146 

Lebon,  230,  250 

Lelut,  338 

Leopardi,  244 

Le  Play,  452,  453 

Lexis,  115 

Linnaeus,  2,  320 

Livi,  Ridolfo,   110,    111,    129,    181,    182, 

183,  215,  218,  369,  393,  397,  402 
Lombroso,  Cesare,  4-10,  11,  14,  17,  67, 

101,  103,  244,  257,  339,  340,  341,  343, 

351,  384,  411,  416,  445 
Lombroso,  Gina,  313 
Luccheni,  15 
Luciani,  Luigi,  153 
Ludwig,  455 

MACDONALD,  85,  167 

Mahomed,  135 

Malpighi,  Marcello,  319 

Mancini,  Maria,  264 

Manouvrier,  L6on,  74,  76,  81,  88,  90,  91, 

119,  230,  257,  258,  268,  375 
Mantegazza,  Paolo,  261 
Marconi,  Guglielmo,  15 
Marro,  Antonio,  130,  131,  142 
Massa,  Signorina,  185,  293 
Massini,  224,  225 
Maurel,  299,  301 
Mazzoni,  Ofelia,  288 
Meckel,  154 
Mendel,  Gregor,  50,  51,  53,  56,  58,  60, 

62,  64,  66,  455,  460 
Messedaglia,  257 
Meunier,  176 
Michelangelo,  340 
Mill,  John  Stuart,  10 
Misdea,  Michele,  412 
Moige,  148 

Moleschott,  Jakob,  340 
Monti,  364 
Morel,  6,  339 

Morselli,  Enrico,  6,  21-23,  319,  344 
Mosso,  Angelo,  364 
Musolino,  15 

NAEGELI,  Karl  Wilhelm  von,  46,  47 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  398 
Niceforo,  Alfredo,  19,  127,  182,  184,  253 
Nietzsche,  Friedrich,  251 

OLORIZ,  130 

PAGLIANI,  131,  296 
Parchappe,  250 
Pastor ello,  419 
Pearson,  Karl,  217 


Pieraccini,  120, 121 
Pinard,  173 
Purkinje,  319 

QUETELET,  Lambert  Adolphe-Jacques, 
10,  65,  110,  113,  117,  179,  217,  233, 
234,  235,  295,  297,  391,  393,  398,  400, 
454,  455,  459,  469 

RANKE,  210 

Retzius,  Anders  Adolph,  207,  208,  210, 

212,  213 
Rosa,  48,  49,  50 
Rossi,  345,  347,  348 
Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  141,  355 
Rubens,  80 
Russell,  50 
Riitemeyer,  Louis,  208 

SACCHI,  164 

Sandier,  118 

Schafer,  173 

Schiller,  256 

Schultze,,38 

SSguin,  Edouard,  33,  426,  449 

Sergi,  Giuseppe,  14-21,  60,  62,  109,  202, 

205,  207,  208,  209,  243,  270,  323,  327, 

371,  428,  450,  451 
Sergi,  Sergio,  221,  247,  327 
Sick,  152,  153 
Simon,  223 
Stoppato,  153 
Stratz,  86,  113 

TARDE,  261 

Thulie,  Henri,  441 

Topinard,  Paul,  110,  210,  211,  243 

Tschermak,  E.,  50 

Tiircker,  Ada,  412 

VERONESE,  Paolo,  104 

Verworn,  39 

Vierordt,  180 

Viola,  Giacinto,  65,  364,  455,  461,  463, 

464,  465,  468 
Virchow,  Rudolf,  208,  243 
Vitali,  Vitale,  232,  235 
Vitruvius,  315 
Voltaire,  140 
Vries,  Hugo  de,  47,  50,  62,  455 

WAGNER,  228 

Welcker,  Hermann,  200,  224,  225 

Wernicke,  173 

Wester marck,  217 

Winckel,  172 

ZANDER,  154 
Zanolli,  Velio,  257 
Zimmermann,  314 


INDEX 


(B—  Subjects) 


ABDOMEN,  measurements  of  the,  386 

Abnormal  types  of  man,  94 

Abortion  due  to  syphilis,  157 

Akkas,  stature  of  the,  108-09 

Acromegalia,  154 

Addison's  disease,  154 

Albinism,  329 

Anatomical  points,  361,  373,    374,    378, 

385 

Anger,  expression  of,  279 
Angles,  facial,  269,  381-382 
Anomalies  of  buccal  apparatus,  336 
of  ear,  333-335 
of  eye,  333 

of  eyebrows  and  beard,  331 
of  hair,  330 
of  nose,  335-336 
of  pigment,  329 
of  teeth,  336 
of  thorax,  300,  301 
of  wrinkles,  329 

Antecedents  of  pupil,  405  et  seq. 
near  bio-pathological,  407 
remote,  406 
sociological,  411 
Anthropological  form  used  in  New  York 

Juvenile  Asylum,  421 
Anthropology,  criminal,  4-11 
defined,  1 

physiological,  11-14 
technique  of,  361-387 
Anthropometer,  362-363 
Ape,  brain  of,  229 

Arms,  total  spread  of,  69,  74,  310,  367 
Arrest  of  development,  145-170,  295 
due  to  alcohol,  156 
due  to  infant  illnesses,  162 
due  to  malaria,  160-161 
due  to  pellagra,  161 
due  to  rickets,  164 
due  to  syphilis,  157 
Asymmetry,  cranial,  196,  372 
facial,  271,  282,  346,  383 
functional,  271 

BIOGRAPHIC  chart,  Commune  of  Bologna, 

431 

of  Italian  reformatories,  432 
Pastorello's,  420 
Sergi's,  429 


Biographic  history  of  pupil,  404 

pedagogical  advantages  of,  441 

of  an  idiot  boy,  431  et  seq. 
Birth-marks,  329 
Brachycephalic  races,  214 
Brachydactylism,  317 
Brachyscelia,  82-91 
Brain,  chemistry  of,  247 

convolutions  of,  221-223 

embryonal  development  of,  220-221 

morphological  normality  in  relation  to 
age,  237 

rhythm  of  growth  of,  225-227 

volume  of,  229 

weight  of,  224 
Brunettes,  suppressed,  324 
Buccal  apparatus,  anomalies  of,  336 

CALF  of  leg,  absence  of,  311 
Garnet  maternel,  174-175,  273 
Cells,  animal,  43 

vegetable,  43 
Cephalic  index,  207-220 

at  different  ages,  217 

for  Italy,  214 

nomenclature,  210-211 
Cephalometry,  370 
.Cephaloscopy,  370 

Cerebral  development,  influence  of  bio- 
logical factor  upon,  255 

influence  of  economic  conditions,  253 

influence  of  exercise,  254 
Cerebral  hypophysis,  152,  153 
Cervical  pleiades,  157 
Chameprosopic  face,  263,  265 
Cheiromancy,  312,  318 
Childbirth,  dangerous  modern,  307 
Children's  Houses,    123-124,   138,   143- 

145,  280,  288,  422,  423,  443 
Chinese,  civilization  of,  91-92 

psycho-ethnic  character  of,  77 
Chromatic  charts,  Broca's,  321 
Circumference,  axillary,  385 

of  cranium,  233-242,  376 

submammary,   385 

of  thorax,  368,  385 
Club-foot,  312 

Convolutions  of  the  brain,  222-223 
Coordinates,  394 
Craniology,.  186-283 


503 


504 


INDEX 


Craniometric  points,  373-374 
Craniometry,  370,  373 
Cranioscopic  norms,  371-372 
Cranioscopy,  370 
Cranium,  animal,  189 
bones  of  human,  187-188 
characteristics  of  human,  191-192 
measurements  of,  369-385 
morphological  evolution  of,  197 
of  new-born  child,  197 
normal  forms  of,  202 
ossification  of,  200-201 
varieties  of: 

aerocephalic,  207,  374 
beloid,  205 

clinocephalic,  207,  372 
cuboid,  205 
cymbocephalic,  372 
ellipsoid,  203 
ovoid,  203-204 
oxy cephalic,  372 
pentagonoid,  204 
plagiocephalic,  196,  372 
platycephalic,  205 
rhomboid,  204 
Bcaphocephalic,  196,  372 
sphenoid,  205 
spheroid,  205 
trapezoid,  206 
trigonocephalic,  371 
volume  of,  220-259,  377 
Criminals,  non-violent,  types  of,  101-102 
violent,  types  of,  102 
stature  in,  types  of,  101,  103 
Cubic  index,  Broca's,  377 
Curves,  DeHelguero's,  460 

DEFORMATIONS,  definition  of,  344 

due  to  field  labour,  121 

due  to  mining,  121 

due  to  school  benches,  122,  302,  307, 
349 

due  to  stone-breaking,  121 
Degeneration,  signs  of: 

abnormal  frontal  diameters,  384 

kinky  hair,  330 

polytrichia,  330 

precocious  wrinkles,  330 

united  eye-brows,  331 

social  causes  of,  6 
Dentition,  record  of  first,  410 
Diameter,  biacromial,  385 

bigoniac,  379,  383 

bimammillary,  385 

bizygomatic,  379,  383 

of  cranium,   maximum  antero-poster- 
ior,  374 


Diameter  of   cranium,  maximum  trans- 
verse, 375 

minimum  frontal,  384 
vertical,  375 
of  thorax,  antero-posterior,  385 

transverse,  385 

Diameters  of  cranium,  increase  of  maxi- 
mum, 231 

measurement  of,  374 
Diastemata,  337 
Diet  of  children,  127 
Dimensions  of  the  body  at  different  ages, 

146-147 
Dismimia,  282 
Dolichocephalic  races,  214 
Dystrophies,  toxical,  162 

EAR,  anatomy  of,  334 

anomalies  of,  333-335 

handle-shaped,  346 

Morel's,  335 

Wildermuth's,  335 
Education  of  new-born  child,  442 
Electricity,  effect  on  growth  of  stature, 

139 

Embryo,  development  of  human,  45,  72 
Embryonal  face,  272 
Environment,  adaptation  to,  79 

influence  of,  415 
Enzymes,  154,  155 

Ludwig's  theory  of,  42 
Epilepsy,  136 

a  factor  in  criminality,  445 

treatment  of,  446 
Error,  personal,  387-390,  457 
Eurafrican  race,  214,  270 
Eurasian  race,  79,  214,  323 
Evolution,  theories  of,  46-50 
Exophthalmia,  333 
Experimental  sciences  defined,  23 
Expression,  facial,  276  et  seq. 
Extra-social  types,  103-105 
Eye,  anomalies  of,  333 

Mongolian,  333 
Eye-brows,  oblique,  331 

united,  331 

FACE,  chamoprosopic,  262 
embryonal,  272 
evolution  of,  272 
human  characteristics  of,  260 
leptoprosopic,  262 
limits  of,  259  et  seq. 
mesoprosopic,  263 
orbicular,  263 
skeleton  of,  188-189 
symmetry  of,  383 


INDEX 


505 


Facial  norm,  378 

Family  monograph,  Le  Play's,  452 

Final  causes,  40-42 

Fingers,  proportion  between,  316 

Flat-foot,  311 

Fontanelles,  cranial,  197 

Form,  the,  67-75,  361-369 

canons  of  the,  74  et  seq. 

definition  of,  69 

fundamental  laws  of,  69 
Freckles,  329 
Frontal  index,  232 

GALLOWAY,    stature    of    Scotchmen    of, 

108-109 
Gastrula,  45 

Generation,  hygiene  of,  173,  176 
Genius,  man  of,  264,  469,  476 
Germinal  potentialities,  63,  64 
Gigantism,  104 
Glands   of   internal   secretion,    151-155- 

163,  164 

Goniometer,  Broca's,  382 
Gray  hair,  326,  330 

precocious,  330 
Growth,  defined,  81 

effect    of    psychic    stimuli    on,    140- 
145 

need  of  heat  for,  132 

of  brain,  due  to  alimentation,  245 

due  to  cerebral  exercise,  245 

in  woman,  227 

rhythm  of,  225,  226,  227 

of  head,  rhythms  of,  274 

of  limbs,  309 

of  neck,  282 

of  pelvis,  306 

of  stature,  112-114 

of  thorax,  294 

HAIR,  curly,  327,  328 

form  of,  327-329 

kinky,  327,  328 

pigmentation  of,  323-325,  327 

smooth,  327 

vortices,  330 

wavy,  327,  328 
Hair-roots,  line  of,  330 
Hand,  the,  312-319    . 

dimensions  of,  315 

functional  characteristics  of,  316 

in  figurative  speech,  313-314 

in  relation  to  other  dimensions  of  the 
body,  315 

psychological  types  of,  314 
Heart,  the,  285 
Heredity,  phenomena  of,  50 


Hexadactylism,  317 

Hybridism,  human,  60-65,  78,  79,  351, 
467,  471 

phenomena  of,  51-67 
Hygiene  of  generation,  173,  176 
Hymn  to  bread,  126 
Hypermimia,  281 
Hypersthenic  type,  De  Giovanni's,  99- 

100 

Hyposthenic  type,  De  Giovanni's,  96-98 
Hypothyroidea,  153 

ICHTHYOSIS,  329 

Index,  cephalic,  207-220,  376 

of  ear,  380 

facial,  380-381 

of  nose,  380 

ponderal,  368 

of  segments  of  limbs,  310 

of  sexual  mass,  257 

thoracic,  299,  385 

of  visage,  263 

vital,  296,  368 
Indices,  formula  of,  367 
Individual  liberty  of  pupil,  123 
Infantile  atrophy,  153 

types,  147-151 
Infantilism,  146-164 

due  to  alcohol,  156-157 

anangioplastic,  162 

due  to  denutrition,  162 

dystrophic,  155-162 

hereditary  causes  of,  155 

hypertrophic,  162 

myxedematous,  153,  155-156 

pathogenesis  of,  151  et  seq. 

due  to  syphilis,  157,  158 

due  to  tuberculosis,  159 
Intelligence,  human,  what  it  is,  252 

human,  how  to  diagnose  it,  253 

cerebral  volume  in  relation  to,  250 
Invagination  of  cells,  43 
Iris,  pigmentation  of,  325 
Italians,  stature  of,  110-111 

JAPANESE,  stature  of,  110 
Joints,  loose  and  stiff,  311 

Juvenile  delinquents,  antecedents  of,  413 
psycho-physical  character  of,  413 
teachers'  notes  on,  414 

KNOCK-KNEES,  312 
Kyphosis,  303,  306 

LATIXTM,  young  women  of,  65, 78, 1 1 1, 216, 
466 


506 


INDEX 


Leg,  calf  of,  311 

curvature  of,  312 
Leptoprosopic  face,  262 
Liberty  of  children,  144 
Light,  effect  on  growth  of  stature,  136, 

138 
Limbs,  the,  308-319 

growth  of,  309 

index  of  segments  of,  310 

malformations  of,  310 

measurement  of,  386 
Limitations  of  mass,  40-42 
Little's  disease,  312,  408 
Livi's  charts,  110,  393 
Lordosis,  303,  306 
Lungs,  the,  286-287 

MACROCEPHALY,  243 
Macrodontia,  337 
Macroglossia,  338 
Macroplastic  type,  119 
Macroscelia,  77,  88-90 
Malformations,  331-350 

distribution  of,  344-350 

of  cranium,  195-6 

of  limbs,  310 

origin  of,  355 

synoptic  chart  of,  332 
Marie's  disease,  154 
Marriage,  proper  age  for,  118 

precocious,  117 
Maternal  diaries,  409 
Mean  averages,  391 
Measurement  of  abdomen,  386 

of  cranium,  375-377 

of  face,  378-385 

of  limbs,  386-387 

of  stature,  362-366 

of  thorax,  385 

of  total  spread  of  arms,  367 
Medial  man,  theory  of  the,  65,  454-470 
Mediterranean  race,  79,  214, 264,  270,  323 
Melanosis,  329 
Mendel's  laws,  50-59 
Mesoprosopic  face,  263 
Metabolism,  40-42,  124 
Method,  importance  of,  in  experimental 

sciences,  23-30 

Methodology,  statistical,  391-403 
Microcephaly,  243 
Microdontia,  337 
Microphthalmia,  333 
Mongolians  the  most  brachyscelous  race, 

77 
Monkey-like  traits: 

flat  hand,  317 

lack  of  certain  lines  in  palm,  318 


Monkey-like,  long  fore-arm,  310 

thin  lips,  336 
Morphological  adaptation  of  hand,  314 

combinations,  De  Giovanni's,  65 

evolution  of  cranium,  197 
Morphology  of  body  at  various  ages,  146- 
147 

of  the  brain,  247 

importance  of,  338 
Mortality,  curve  of  general,  115 

infant,  in  relation  to  vital  index,  296 

in  Italy,  293 
Morula,  44 

Mother's  love,  psychic  stimulus  of,  142 
Multicellular    organisms,    formation    of, 

42-46 
Muscles  of  head  and  face,  277-278 

of  thorax,  285 

Mutations,  De  Vries'  theory  of,  47 
Myxedematous  idiocy,  153 

NAILS,  the,  317 

Nanism,  achondroplastic,  103-105 

Neanderthal  skull,  192 

Neck,  the,  282-283 

Norm,  facial,  378 
frontal,  372 
lateral,  372 
occipital,  372 
of  profile,  379 
vertical,  371 

Nose,  anomalies  of,  335-336 

Nutrition,  influence  of,  on  school  chil- 
dren, 418 

OLIGODACTYLIA,  316 
Onycogryposis,  317 
Orientation,  line  of,  265 
Orthognathism,  268,  271 
Ovum,  human,  44 

PALATE,  cleft,  272 

ogival,  338,  352 
Palms,  lines  of  the,  318 
Papillary  lines,  319 
Paralysis,  infantile,  408 
Parasites,  social  duty  towards,  168 
Parasitism,  stigma  of,  314,  317 
Peasant,  class  stigma  of,  271,  326,  346 
Pedagogical  method,  need  of  reform  in, 

123,  144,  302 

Pellagra,  symptoms  of,  161 
Pelvis,  304-307 

growth  of,  306 

rotation  of,  307 

sexual  differences  in,  305 

skeleton  of,  304 


INDEX 


507 


Personal  error,  387-390,  457 
Photogenic  conditions,  136-138 
Phototherapy,  136 
Pia  Barolo  society,  131 
Pigments,  the,  320-331 

during  growth,  323 
Pigmentation  of  hair,  326 
of  iris,  325 
of  skin,  325 
Pigmy  races,  109 
Pithecanthropus,  skull  of,  192 
Plagiocephalic  cranium,  196,  372 
Plagioprosopy,  271,  383 
Platyopic  profile,  271 
Playthings,  children's  natural  contempt 

for,  143 
Pleasure,  expression  of,  279 

necessary  to  human  existence,  141 
Polytrichia,  330 
Polydactylism,  317 
Ponderal  index,  181 

evolution  of,  183,  184 
method  of  computing,  181-183 
Pregnancy,  too  frequent,  173 
Profile,  Egyptian,  270 
Greek,  269 
low  types  of,  271 
norm  of,  379 
proopic,  271 
Roman,  269 
Progeneism,  267,  385 
Prognathism,  267,  268,  385 
Prophatnia,  385 
Prosopometry,  379-385 
Prosoposcopy,  378-379 
Protoplasm,  38 

Psychic  stimuli,  effect  on  health  of  chil- 
dren, 144 

test,  De  Sanctis',  425 
Puberty,  change  in  pigments  at,  323,  326 
growth  of  jaw  at,  274 
of  limbs  at,  310 
of  nose  at,  274 

influence  of  climate  on,  135-136 
of  cold  on,  132 

of  direct  sexual  stimuli  on,  131 
of  heat  on,  135 
of  nutrition  on,  130-132 
of  psychic  stimuli  on,  134,  141,  142 
repose  preceding,  115 
of  Russian  girls,  135 
of  women  of  Lapland,  135 
relation  of  growth  of  brain  and  face  to, 

230 
Pulmonary  capacity,  288-294 

QUETELET'S  binomial  curve,  398 


RACE,  Eurafrican,  214,  270 

Mediterranean,  79,  214,  264,  270,  323 
Rachitic  rosary,  302 

Racial  types  in  Europe,  different  charac- 
teristics of  two  principal,  353 
Rewards   and   punishments,    fallacy   of, 

.123,  144-145,  432,  441,  443 
Rhythm  of  brain  growth,  232-236 

of  facial  growth,  274 

of  stature,  triennial,  113 
Rickets,  97,  103,  164-166,  244,  268,  296, 

302 

fcetal,  103 

SCHOOL  benches,  deformatipns   due   to, 
122,  302,  307,  349 

records,  411 
School-sanatorium,  160 
Scientific  philosophy,  Morselli's,  21 
Sea-shore,  benefit  to  children,  136-137 
Seriation,  396 

importance  of,  455 
Sexual  education,  356 

function,  dignity  of  the,  126 

morality,  117,  126,  473-476 

Sitting  stature,  365-366 

at  different  ages,  85 

Skeleton,  human,  71-72 

articulations  of,  107 

of  face,  188-189 

of  limbs,  308 

of  pelvis,  304 
Skin,  the,  320-344 
Solitary  confinement,  141 
Sorrow,  expression  of,  278 
Space,  empirical  relation  to  stature,  139 
Specific  gravity,  of  body,  178 

of  brain,  229 
Spirometry,  288-294,  385 
Stature,  106-171 

of  ab normals,  167 

according  to  sex,  80  et  seq. 

of  American  children,  128 

brachyscelous  type  of,  75 

cycle  of,  363 

definition  of,  70,  106,  362 

in  relation  to  dimensions  of  thorax, 
295-297 

effect  of  nutrition  on,  124-132 
of  erect  position  on,  120 
of  heat  on,  132-136 

essential,  73 

mean  average,  of  European,  459 

growth  in,  during  first  year,  112-113 

index  of,  84,  366,  367 

involution  of,  114 

of  Italians,  mean  average,  392 


508 


INDEX 


Stature,  Livi's  charts  of,  110-111 
macroscelous  type  of,  76 
maximums  and  minimums,  compared 

with  cranial  circumference,  238-242 
measurement  of,  362 
parabolic  curve  of,  112,  114 
pathological  variations  of,  145-170 
of  rachitic  children,  165 
racial  limits  of,  108-111 
in  relation  to  sex,  111-112 
rhythm  of,  86 
Bummary  of,  170-171 
terminology  of,  110 
total,  at  different  ages,  85 
triennial  rhythm  of  growth  of,  113— 

114 

types  of,  67  el  seq. 
abnormal,  91 
'according  to  age,  81 
in  art,  80 

according  to  race,  77 
according  to  social  conditions,  79 
summary  of,  105-106 
variations  in,  according  to  age,  112-118 
according  to  seasons,  138 
due  to  mechanical  causes  of  adapta- 
tion, 119-124 
night  and  morning,  119 
transitory,  120 

Sterility  of  dwarfs  and  giants,  104 
due  to  precocious  marriage,  117 
due  to  work  in  rice-fields,  121 
Stigmata  of  degeneration,  342 
among  beggars,  348 
among  orphans,  348 
Stimulants  poisons  for  children,  127 
Studious  children,  denutrition  of,  185 

physical  inferiority  of,  25,  159,  185,  293 
Sun-baths,  137 
Superiority,  social,  258 
of  women,  moral,  259 
Suprarenal  capsule,  152,  154 
Surprise,  expression  of,  279-280 
Syndactylism,  317 
Syphilis,  abortion  due  to,  157 
symptoms  of,  157-158 

TASMANIAN,  civilization  of,  92-93 

most  macroscelous  race,  77 
Teacher  of  the  future,  the,  360 

of  abnormal  pupils,  449 

responsibility  of  the,  116 
Teeth,  anomalies  of  the,  336 

first  and  second  dentition,  336 


Temperaments,  De  Giovanni's  doctrine 

of,  12-14 

Thermal  gymnastics,  133-134 
Thermic  conditions  of  schools,  132-135 
Thoracic  index,  299 

perimeter,  368 
Thorax,  the,  284-303 

anatomical  parts  of,  284-286 

anomalies  of  shape  of,  301 

descent  of,  294 

dimensions  of,  in  relation  to  stature, 
295,  297 

growth  of,  294 

measurement  of,  385 

physiological  importance  of,  286 

shape  of,  299 

triangulation  of,  295 
Thought,  expression  of,  280 
Thymus  gland,  152,  153 
Thyroid  gland,  152-153 
Toe,  opposable  big,  311 
Tongue,  the,  338 
Total  spread  of  arms,  367 
Tuberculosis,  291 
Type  of  civilized  man,  468 

UVULA,  double,  338 

VERTEBRAL    column,  normal  curves   of, 

107-108 
Visage,  index  of,  263 

normal,  262 

Roman,  263 
Vital  index,  296,  368 
Voice,  education  of  the,  287-288 

WARMTH,  fallacy  of  demoralizing  effect 

of,  133-134 
Weight,  the,  172-185,  368 

of  brain,  224 

the,  as  exponent  of  health,  172 

of  new-born  child,  172 

of  child,  effect  of  too  frequent  preg- 
nancy on,  173 

of  child,  effect  of  mother's  age  on,  173 

child's  gain  in,  174 

and  growth  of  separate  organs,  com- 
parative, 180 

child's  loss  in,  significance  of,  176 

increase  according  to  sex,  179 
Women,    fallacy    of   pretended    cerebral 

inferiority  of,  256 
Wrinkles,  anomalies  of,  329 

precocity  of,  326,  329 


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